{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,12]],"date-time":"2025-07-12T22:43:37Z","timestamp":1752360217493},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2008,9,12]],"date-time":"2008-09-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1221177600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":4669,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nat. Lang. Eng."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1995,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Every word in the lexicon of a natural language is used distinctly from all the other words. A word expert is a small expert system-like module for processing a particular word based on other words in its vicinity. A word expert exploits the idiosyncratic nature of a word by using a set of context testing decision rules that test the identity and placement of context words to infer the word's role in the passage.<\/jats:p><jats:p>The main application of word experts is disambiguating words. Work on word experts has never fully recognized previous related work, and a comprehensive review of that work would therefore contribute to the field. This paper both provides such a review, and describes guidelines and considerations useful in the design and construction of word expert based systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/s1351324900000255","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2008,9,12]],"date-time":"2008-09-12T11:21:26Z","timestamp":1221218486000},"page":"339-362","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Engineering \u201cword experts\u201d for word disambiguation"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"1","author":[{"given":"Daniel","family":"Berleant","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2008,9,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref016","first-page":"89","article-title":"A connectionist scheme for modelling word sense disambiguation","volume":"6","author":"Cottrell","year":"1983","journal-title":"Cognition and Brain Theory"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref015","volume-title":"A Connectionist Approach to Word Sense Disambiguation","author":"Cottrell","year":"1989"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref011","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3115\/981344.981378"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref007","first-page":"XI","volume-title":"Thorndike-Barnhart Comprehensive Desk Dictionary","author":"Barnhart","year":"1967"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref008","volume-title":"Sefer Arukh Ha-Shalem","author":"ben Jehiel","year":"1969"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref006","volume-title":"Using Large Corpora","author":"Armstrong","year":"1994"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref059","unstructured":"Yarowsky D. , (1994 a) A comparison of corpus-based techniques for restoring accents in Spanish and French text. Proceedings of the 2nd Annual Workshop on Very Large Text Corpora."},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref009","unstructured":"Berleant J. D. . (1982) Subliminal stimuli and the interpretation of ambiguous sentences. B.S. thesis, MIT."},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref049","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sproat R. , Hirschberg J. , and Yarowsky D. , (1992) A corpus-based synthesizer. Proceedings International Conference on Spoken Language Processing.","DOI":"10.21437\/ICSLP.1992-130"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref051","volume-title":"Text Analysis for the Social Sciences: Methods for Drawing Statistical Inferences from Texts and Transcripts","author":"Stone","year":"1995"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref005","volume-title":"Natural Language Understanding","author":"Allen","year":"1995"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref037","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01638537809544440"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref004","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-08-051013-2.50005-7"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref023","first-page":"8","article-title":"Bi-text, a new concept in translation theory","volume":"54","author":"Harris","year":"1988","journal-title":"Language Monthly"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref001","first-page":"73","article-title":"Word expert parsing: A natural language analysis program revised and applied to Dutch","volume":"75","author":"Adriaens","year":"1986","journal-title":"Leuvensche Bijdragen"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref010","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/182063.182070"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref012","first-page":"263","article-title":"The Mathematics of statistical machine translation: parameter estimation","volume":"19","author":"Brown","year":"1993","journal-title":"Computational Linguistics"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref047","unstructured":"Small S. , Cottrell G. , and Shastri L. , (1982) Toward connectionist parsing. Proceedings National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-82), AAAI, pp. 247\u2013250."},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref003","first-page":"309","volume-title":"International Workshop on Parsing Technologies","author":"Adriaens","year":"1989"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref057","unstructured":"Xerox Part-of-Speech Tagger (XPOST), http:\/\/cl-www.dfki.uni-sb.de:80\/cl\/registry\/parsers\/xerox.html."},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref048","first-page":"89","volume-title":"Strategies for Natural Language Processing","author":"Small","year":"1982"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref053","first-page":"13","volume-title":"Thorndike-Barnhart Student Dictionary (Updated Edition)","author":"Thorndike"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref054","unstructured":"University of Birmingham, Corpus Linguistics research group's email tagging service at taggerlc1g.bham.ac.uk (information at http:\/\/clgl.bham.ac.uk\/tagger.html)."},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref013","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00121220"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref044","unstructured":"Small S. , (1980) Word Expert Parsing: A Theory of Distributed Word-Based Natural Language Understanding. Dissertation, Technical report TR-954, Department of Computer Science, University of Maryland."},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref022","volume-title":"Parallel Natural Language Processing","author":"Hahn","year":"1994"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref020","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00136984"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Small S. , (1979) Word expert parsing. Proceedings of the 17th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics.","DOI":"10.3115\/982163.982167"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref017","volume-title":"Parallel Natural Language Processing","author":"Devos","year":"1994"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref031","volume-title":"The Semantic Count of the 570 Commonest English Words","author":"Lorge","year":"1949"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref030","volume-title":"A Semantic Count of English Words","volume":"3","author":"Lorge","year":"1938"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref033","unstructured":"The Natural Language Software Registry, on the world wide web at http:\/\/cl-wwwdfki.uni-sb.de\/ci\/registry\/draft.html."},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref052","volume-title":"The General Inquirer: A Computer Approach to Content Analysis","author":"Stone","year":"1966"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref019","first-page":"75","article-title":"A program for aligning sentences in bilingual corpora","volume":"19","author":"Gale","year":"1993","journal-title":"Computational Linguistics"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref021","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/int.4550040307"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref060","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yarowsky D. , (1993) One sense per collocation. Proceedings of the 1993 ARPA Human Language Technology Workshop, pp. 266\u2013271. San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA458621"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref024","volume-title":"Using Corpora","author":"Hearst","year":"1991"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref025","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511554346"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref026","first-page":"121","article-title":"Text-translation alignment","volume":"19","author":"Kay","year":"1993","journal-title":"Computational Linguistics"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref045","unstructured":"Small S. , (1981) Viewing word expert parsing as linguistic theory. Proceedings International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI-81), pp. 70\u201376."},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref002","unstructured":"Adriaens G. , (1987) WEP (word expert parsing) revised and applied to Dutch. ECAI '86: Proceedings 7th European Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Brighton, UK, 21\u201325 July 1986, pp. 222\u2013235. (Reprinted in Du Boulay B. , Hogg D. and Steels L. , eds., Advances in Artificial Intelligence II, Elsevier, 1987, pp. 403\u2013416.)"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref027","volume-title":"Computer Recognition of English Word Senses","author":"Kelly","year":"1975"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref018","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3115\/991635.991665"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref028","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-55860-237-3.50005-4"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1177\/016146813703900109","article-title":"The English semantic count","volume":"39","author":"Lorge","year":"1937","journal-title":"Teacher's College Record"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref038","volume-title":"Associative Networks: Representation and Use of Knowledge by Computers","author":"Rieger","year":"1979"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref046","volume-title":"Parsing Natural Language","author":"Small","year":"1983"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref032","unstructured":"Mathew J. , Conrad J. M. and Berleant D. . (1993) Word sense disambiguation by constraint satisfaction: a feasibility study. Proceedings of the Arkansas Computer Conference, Little Rock, AR."},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref035","unstructured":"Oxford Text Archive, Word Wide Web location ftp:\/\/ota.ox.ac.uk\/pub\/ota\/public\/dicts\/info."},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref036","first-page":"97","volume-title":"A Survey of Linguistic Science","author":"Rieger","year":"1978"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref039","unstructured":"Rieger C. , and Small S. , (1979) Word expert parsing. Proceedings International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI-79), pp. 723\u2013728."},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref040","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.1981.4308577"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110877311","volume-title":"Working with Analogical Semantics: Disambiguation Techniques in DLT","author":"Sadler","year":"1989"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref042","first-page":"78","article-title":"Massively parallel approach aids speech translation","volume":"26","author":"Schaller","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE Computer"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref050","volume-title":"The Analysis of Communication Content","author":"Stone","year":"1969"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref014","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02259530"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref055","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-0271(73)90005-3"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref034","unstructured":"The Oxford English Dictionary (1933) Vols. I\u2013XI1 and Supplement (corrected re-issue). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press."},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref056","volume-title":"Chinese Characters: Their Origin, Etymology, History, Classfication and Signification: A Thorough Study from Chinese Documents","author":"Wieger","year":"1965"},{"key":"S1351324900000255_ref058","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yarowsky D. , (1994) Decision lists for lexical ambiguity resolution: application to accent restoration in Spanish and French. Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL-94). World Wide Web location http:\/\/xxx.lani.gov\/abs\/cmp-lg\/9406034.","DOI":"10.3115\/981732.981745"}],"container-title":["Natural Language Engineering"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S1351324900000255","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,19]],"date-time":"2023-05-19T22:56:10Z","timestamp":1684536970000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S1351324900000255\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1995,12]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1995,12]]}},"alternative-id":["S1351324900000255"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s1351324900000255","relation":{},"ISSN":["1351-3249","1469-8110"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1351-3249","type":"print"},{"value":"1469-8110","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1995,12]]}}}