{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T02:56:21Z","timestamp":1792637781414,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":263,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,9]],"date-time":"2025-01-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736380800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":8,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["cambridge.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Expert Rev. Mol. Med."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n\t  <jats:sec id=\"S1462399424000413_sec01\">\n\t    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n\t    <jats:p>Leishmaniasis, Chagas disease (CD), and Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) are neglected tropical diseases in humans caused by intracellular parasites from the class <jats:italic>Kinetoplastida<\/jats:italic>. Leishmaniasis is one infectious disease that exhibits sex-bias not explained solely by behavioral or cultural differences. However, HAT and CD have less well documented and understood sex-related differences, either due to a lack of differences or insufficient research and reporting.<\/jats:p>\n\t  <\/jats:sec>\n\t  <jats:sec id=\"S1462399424000413_sec02\">\n\t    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n\t    <jats:p>This paper reviews the rate of disease and disease severity among male and females infected with CD, HAT, and leishmaniasis. We further review the specific immune response to each pathogen and potential sex-based mechanisms which could impact immune responses and disease outcomes.<\/jats:p>\n\t  <\/jats:sec>\n\t  <jats:sec id=\"S1462399424000413_sec03\">\n\t    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n\t    <jats:p>These mechanisms include sex hormone modulation of the immune response, sex-related genetic differences, and socio-cultural factors impacting risky behaviors in men and women. The mechanistic differences in immune response among sexes and pathogens provide important insights and identification of areas for further research.<\/jats:p>\n\t  <\/jats:sec>\n\t  <jats:sec id=\"S1462399424000413_sec04\">\n\t    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n\t    <jats:p>This information can aid in future development of inclusive, targeted, safe, and effective treatments and control measures for these neglected diseases and other infectious diseases.<\/jats:p>\n\t  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1017\/erm.2024.41","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,9]],"date-time":"2025-01-09T04:31:17Z","timestamp":1736397077000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/policypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Understanding Sex-biases in Kinetoplastid Infections: Leishmaniasis and Trypanosomiasis"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Olivia","family":"Battistoni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Ohio State University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1884-1695","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ryan H.","family":"Huston","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Ohio State University"},{"name":"The Ohio State University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5723-6346","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chaitenya","family":"Verma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Ohio State University"},{"name":"Sharda University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2741-0942","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thalia","family":"Pacheco-Fernandez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Abul-Khoudoud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Ohio State University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alison","family":"Campbell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Ohio State University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5989-1520","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abhay R.","family":"Satoskar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Ohio State University"},{"name":"The Ohio State University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"S1462399424000413_r102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0940-2993(11)80092-8"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s004360000354"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(01)00170-9"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268818000109"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r228","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed7080179"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000180265"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r31","first-page":"913510","article-title":"The associations of Leishmania major and Leishmania tropica aspects by focusing their morphological and molecular features on clinical appearances in Khuzestan Province","volume":"2014","author":"Spotin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Iran. BioMed Research International"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r239","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40475-021-00232-7"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1462399410001560"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-706X(94)90094-9"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2013.03.023"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/pim.12512"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/07420529908998722"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r257","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1590\/S0066-782X2011000600002"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0900226106"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2003-031069"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm12030499"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000087953"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.56.12.3316-3319.1988"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r234","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/1990653111"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-706X(90)90024-T"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r17","first-page":"145","article-title":"Pregnancy and autoimmune disease","volume":"119","author":"Merz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Deutsches \u00c4rzteblatt International"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009204"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r263","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1191\/0961203304lu1094oa"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r165","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.156.2.644"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI33945"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r139","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1016427"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r249","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jme\/tjz004"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES2013.18.29.20531"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0157597"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.01558"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r216","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00251-009-0392-9"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tice.2008.02.004"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1007\/s004360050639","article-title":"Influence of male gonadal hormones on the parasitemia and humoral response of male Calomys callosus infected with the Y strain of Trypanosoma cruzi","volume":"85","author":"do","year":"1999","journal-title":"Parasitology Research"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r248","unstructured":"248. American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas Disease) \u2013 ClinicalKey."},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/183041"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268818002984"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-4017(91)90101-Z"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r92","first-page":"468","article-title":") Endocrine function and African trypanosomiasis. Evaluation of 79 cases","volume":"81","author":"Hublart","year":"1988","journal-title":"Bulletin De La Societe De Pathologie Exotique Et De Ses Filiales"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-7-386"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bj.2020.11.007"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r6","unstructured":"6. Global Report on Neglected Tropical Diseases 2023"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2017.09.002"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2013.05.046"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r255","unstructured":"255. Diagnosis and management of Chagas disease and cardiomyopathy | Nature Reviews Cardiology."},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r126","first-page":"21","article-title":"Testosterone inhibits apoptosis of Leishmania donovani-infected macrophages","volume":"17","author":"Qiao","year":"1999","journal-title":"Zhongguo Ji Sheng Chong Xue Yu Ji Sheng Chong Bing Za Zhi = Chinese Journal of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r50","first-page":"73","article-title":") Importance of host sex in the development of Trypanosoma cruzi infection","volume":"67","author":"Micucci","year":"2010","journal-title":"Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Medicas University of Nacional de Cordoba"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r72","first-page":"217","article-title":"Estrogens, the immune response and autoimmunity","volume":"13","author":"Cutolo","year":"1995","journal-title":"Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.2000.80.4.1523"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r202","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41568-021-00348-y"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000205513"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0015-0282(16)58029-7"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r211","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002710"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2000072109"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2010.01.016"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r76","first-page":"635","article-title":"The immune system is a natural target for estrogen action: Opposing effects of estrogen in two prototypical autoimmune diseases","volume":"6","author":"Khan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Frontiers in Immunology"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r241","unstructured":"241. Clinical Care of Leishmaniasis (2024). 2024\/03\/13. Available from: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/leishmaniasis\/hcp\/clinical-care\/index.html."},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r223","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1590\/0037-8682-0657-2021"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2019.08.018"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r186","unstructured":"186. Gender is a major determinant of the clinical evolution and immune response in hamsters infected with Leishmania spp \u2013 PubMed."},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-022-14577-9"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r203","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-30726-3_22"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2010.140182"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r232","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004546"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01250"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2011.04.008"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r147","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2012.06601.x"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r38","first-page":"545393","article-title":"Trend analysis of visceral leishmaniasis at Addis Zemen health center","volume":"2014","author":"Wondimeneh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Northwest Ethiopia. BioMed Research International"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r43","first-page":"225","article-title":"Male sex. Prognostic factor in Chagas\u2019 disease","volume":"60","author":"Barretto","year":"1993","journal-title":"Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r150","first-page":"121","article-title":") Does Prolactin treatment trigger imunoendocrine alterations during experimental T. cruzi infection?","author":"Del Vecchio Filipin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r124","first-page":"876","article-title":"Sex-influenced population kinetics of Leishmania donovani in hamsters","volume":"28","author":"Anuradha","year":"1990","journal-title":"Indian Journal of Experimental Biology"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r199","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu448"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.70.5.2288-2296.2002"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12016-017-8648-x"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r258","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2019.165658"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r240","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.16-84256"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r243","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-022-00449-1"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2022-222276"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2009.02.005"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r196","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15287390600974924"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12020282"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s004360100474"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r212","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13293-016-0117-3"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r208","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fitd.2022.847109"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2009.08.005"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2915.2010.00936.x"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r4","unstructured":"4. Severo, A (2023). Key messages for World Chagas Disease day. In World Health Organization."},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r80","first-page":"236","article-title":"Progesterone: The forgotten hormone in men? The aging male","volume":"7","author":"Oettel","year":"2004","journal-title":"The Official Journal of the International Society for the Study of the Aging Male"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.steroids.2005.02.020"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r190","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2007.76.1125"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r189","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/pim.12874"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s004360100474"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r1","first-page":"1072","article-title":"Comparative morphology of kinetoplastids","volume":"37","author":"Frolov","year":"1995","journal-title":"Tsitologiia"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-006-0168-1"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiu232"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r184","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reprotox.2006.04.001"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r227","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.694134"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r187","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/4103819"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r214","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000930"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r179","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellimm.2007.10.008"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r20","volume-title":"The Epidemiology of Leishmania Donovani Infection in High Transmission Foci in India","year":"2010"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r244","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-021-02446-x"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r175","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14040909"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r193","first-page":"11","article-title":"Antileishmanial activity of tamoxifen by targeting sphingolipid metabolism: A review","volume":"14","author":"Zewdie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clinical Pharmacology: Advances and Applications"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2530-9"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r209","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13293-015-0024-z"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3156.2010.02518.x"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r26","first-page":"94","article-title":"Epidemiological features of visceral leishmaniasis in Fars province, southern Iran","volume":"41","author":"Sarkari","year":"2012","journal-title":"Iranian Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r169","volume-title":"StatPearls: Estrogen","author":"Benjamin","year":"2023"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0116712"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r171","unstructured":"171. Estrogen Receptors: How Do They Signal and What Are Their Targets | Physiological Reviews."},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r215","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001173"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r59","unstructured":"59. Mahoudeau, MC (2023, May 2) Fact Sheet: Trypanosomiasis, Human African. Available from: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/trypanosomiasis-human-african-(sleeping-sickness)"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3156.2004.01333.x"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13004"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.173.11.6521"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e7","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2013-306083corr1","article-title":"Prolactin mediates psychological stress-induced dysfunction of regulatory T cells to facilitate intestinal inflammation","volume":"69","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r166","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4314\/wajm.v23i3.28121"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r58","first-page":"257","article-title":"Epidemiology of human African trypanosomiasis","volume":"6","author":"Franco","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clinical Epidemiology"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0906.030026"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00005-016-0418-6"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0738-081X(94)90323-9"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r222","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/inthealth\/ihv071"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r172","article-title":"Role of estrogen receptors in health and disease","volume":"13","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Frontiers in Endocrinology"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.17-0563"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed7040054"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/IPC.0000000000000512"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.2200454"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r195","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00103-19"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r163","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2567.2008.02820.x"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2022.e12380"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r260","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jme\/tjab225"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.70.5.2288-2296.2002"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r154","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201445078"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r250","volume-title":"Chagas Disease, in StatPearls","author":"Nguyen","year":"2023"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r182","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/00207459008999730"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r245","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14760584.2021.1969231"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r200","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)32995-7"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r262","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00039"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r156","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2023.106254"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r198","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(01)00170-9"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00108"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.56.12.3316-3319.1988"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000452914"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3024.1993.tb00633.x"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.712688"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2012.07.005"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.14.3.476-488.2001"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r224","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0240831"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2005.08.010"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.13946"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12968-016-0307-5"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2530-9"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r177","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm12121995"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r89","first-page":"127","article-title":"Gonadotropic axis and Trypanosoma brucei gambiense infection","volume":"69","author":"Boersma","year":"1989","journal-title":"Annales De La Societe Belge De Medecine Tropicale"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r162","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1645\/0022-3395(2002)088[0102:TCEOPS]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182018001506"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r242","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.2022.60.6.379"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00365540410020451"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0029-1211225"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r236","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005739"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep18302"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r160","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s004360050364"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r174","unstructured":"174. Frontiers | Role of estrogen receptors in health and disease."},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r247","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009080"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.12337"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jit610"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2010.09-0677"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0035-9203(02)90380-9"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007995"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2011.09-0171"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2021.111671"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r173","unstructured":"173. Frontiers | G Protein-Coupled Estrogen Receptor in Immune Cells and Its Role in Immune-Related Diseases."},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/819389"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.01931"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r225","first-page":"742","article-title":"Space-temporal analysis of Chagas disease and its environmental and demographic risk factors in the municipality of Barcarena, Par\u00e1, Brazil","volume":"20","author":"Sousa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Revista Brasileira de Epidemiologia"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r197","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s004360100376"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r95","first-page":"394","article-title":"Immune mechanism facilitating clearance of Trypanosoma gambiense by IgG3 antibody from infected host","volume":"42","author":"Takayanagi","year":"1991","journal-title":"Tropical Medicine and Parasitology: Official Organ of Deutsche Tropenmedizinische Gesellschaft and of Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ)"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r22","first-page":"91","article-title":"Seroepidemiological study on kala-azar in Baringo District, Kenya","volume":"89","author":"Jahn","year":"1986","journal-title":"The Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r191","first-page":"475","article-title":"Tamoxifen inhibits the biosynthesis of inositolphosphorylceramide in Leishmania","volume":"8","author":"Trinconi","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal for Parasitology: Drugs and Drug Resistance"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r238","unstructured":"238. Leishmaniasis . WHO Fact Sheet [cited 2023 May 25); Available from: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/leishmaniasis."},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r188","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.22317\/jcms.v5i6.685"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r7","first-page":"104414","article-title":"Challenges of addressing neglected tropical diseases amidst the COVID-19 pandemic in Africa: A case of Chagas disease","volume":"81","author":"Pradhan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annals of Medicine and Surgery (London)"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jit610"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.43.1.337-340.1984"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/4103819"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r254","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02762009000900005"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r142","first-page":"376","article-title":"Disruptions in the secretion of cortisol, prolactin, and certain cytokines in human African trypanosomiasis patients","volume":"87","author":"Radomski","year":"1994","journal-title":"Bulletin De La Societe De Pathologie Exotique (1990)"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r168","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.0207130"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r205","first-page":"67","article-title":"Tuberculosis and tuberculosis-associated immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in HIV: Immunological review of manifestation and immunopathogenesis","volume":"19","author":"Verma","year":"2020","journal-title":"HIV and AIDS Review. International Journal of HIV-Related Problems"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r207","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1645\/GE-113R3"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0062390"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r220","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s41256-022-00266-y"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r201","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.13749"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r251","unstructured":"251. WHO Fact Sheets: Chagas disease (2023) Available from: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/chagas-disease-(american-trypanosomiasis)"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r219","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-019-1271-3"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r230","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002410"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r3","unstructured":"3. Prevention, C.f.D.C.a (2020, February 18) Leishmaniasis: Epidemiology and Risk Factors. Leishmaniasis [cited 2023; Available from: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/parasites\/leishmaniasis\/epi.html.)"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellimm.2015.01.018"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r5","unstructured":"5. Kinetoplastids, kDNA, RNA | Learn Science at Scitable."},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r194","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2567.2003.01571.x"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r181","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2015.00635"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r226","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/diseases10040069"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2017.10.110"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r158","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplung.00207.2023"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r155","first-page":"17","article-title":"Immunosuppressive effect of progesterone on dendritic cells in mice","volume":"91","author":"Xu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Reproductive Immunology"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r221","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-017-0267-5"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r161","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2020.165914"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r183","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arcmed.2014.01.002"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r176","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.apcsb.2019.01.001"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r14","first-page":"453","article-title":"Epidemiology of myasthenia gravis","volume":"134","author":"Pekmezovi\u0107","year":"2006","journal-title":"Srpski Arhiv za Celokupno Lekarstvo"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1567-5769(01)00044-3"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2013.10.006"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r210","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tig.2016.03.007"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellimm.2015.02.004"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r19","volume-title":"The Epidemiology of Leishmania Donovani Infection in High Transmission Foci in India","year":"2010"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r151","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002470"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r159","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12920-021-01134-3"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.780758"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r185","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1351.022"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r231","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0255226"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40588-018-0081-2"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r180","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.bor.0000240354.37927.dd"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r218","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000058303"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r192","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.879020"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r67","first-page":"86","article-title":"Decrease of testosterone level during an experimental African trypanosomiasis: Involvement of a testicular LH receptor desensitization","volume":"127","author":"Soudan","year":"1992","journal-title":"Acta Endocrinologica"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r204","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2011.12.001"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r167","first-page":"65","article-title":"Pregnancy impairs resistance of C57BL\/6 mice to Leishmania major infection","volume":"34","author":"Arinola","year":"2005","journal-title":"African Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r152","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1471-4922(02)02363-2"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r170","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2012.12.014"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r213","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.01083"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r261","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.325.7357.203"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r235","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10101887"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r9","first-page":"209","volume-title":"Sex Difference in Amebiasis, in Sex and Gender Differences in Infection and Treatments for Infectious Diseases","author":"Er-Lukowiak","year":"2023"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r13","unstructured":"13. StatPearls (2023)."},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-8-88"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007995"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-308X(01)49038-5"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5334\/gh.1150"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r164","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2022.109658"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0956-5663(91)80027-U"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r125","first-page":"251","article-title":"Effect of testosterone on Leishmania donovani infection levels of murine bone marrow derived-macrophages","volume":"16","author":"Yin","year":"1998","journal-title":"Zhongguo Ji Sheng Chong Xue Yu Ji Sheng Chong Bing Za Zhi = Chinese Journal of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r178","first-page":"97","article-title":"Estrogen, a double-edged sword: Modulation of TH1- and TH2-mediated inflammations by differential regulation of TH1\/TH2 cytokine production. Current drug targets","volume":"3","author":"Salem","year":"2004","journal-title":"Inflammation and Allergy"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r252","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1410150"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r253","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.2006.047357"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cytogfr.2007.04.013"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r233","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4314\/mmj.v21i1.10985"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r256","unstructured":"256. Antitrypanosomal Therapy for Chronic Chagas\u2019 Disease | NEJM."},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.174.8.4545"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ijd.13048"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r206","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jit610"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2008.06.016"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r237","first-page":"750","article-title":"Leishmaniasis: A review. F1000","volume":"6","author":"Torres-Guerrero","year":"2017","journal-title":"Research"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r259","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.768450"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r153","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2010.12.009"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2023.156253"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r217","first-page":"97","article-title":"Response of BALB\/c mice to leishmanial infection","volume":"122","author":"Blackwell","year":"1985","journal-title":"Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(94)90430-8"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12639-018-1055-2"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40246-018-0185-z"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002603"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r246","first-page":"561","article-title":"Leishmaniasis control","volume":"44","author":"Saf\u2019janova","year":"1971","journal-title":"Bulletin of the World Health Organization"},{"key":"S1462399424000413_r229","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/6456031"}],"container-title":["Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S1462399424000413","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,7]],"date-time":"2025-10-07T14:40:31Z","timestamp":1759848031000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S1462399424000413\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"references-count":263,"alternative-id":["S1462399424000413"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/erm.2024.41","relation":{},"ISSN":["1462-3994"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1462-3994","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"assertion":[{"value":"\u00a9 The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}},{"value":"This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and reproduction, provided the original article is properly cited.","name":"license","label":"License","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}},{"value":"This content has been made available to all.","name":"free","label":"Free to read"}],"article-number":"e7"}}