{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T06:36:48Z","timestamp":1791441408199,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]],"date-time":"2025-09-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757030400000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":247,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["cambridge.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Expert Rev. Mol. Med."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Human babesiosis is a disease transmitted by the bite of an infected tick or via blood transfusions involving contaminated blood products; in humans, it can lead to severe complications and even death, depending on the clinical history, age and health status of the affected patient. Babesiosis is caused by members of the\n                    <jats:italic>Babesia<\/jats:italic>\n                    spp., protozoan parasites whose life cycle includes sexual reproduction in the arthropod vector and asexual reproduction in the mainly mammalian host. Cases of human babesiosis have been rare, but there are increasing reports of human babesiosis associated with climatic changes affecting the geographical distribution of the parasite and tick vector, enhanced vector\u2013human interactions and improved awareness of the disease in humans. Diagnostics and treatment options for humans are based around discoveries in veterinary research, such as point-of-care testing in cases of bovine babesiosis, and include direct diagnosis by blood smears, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technologies, and indirect diagnosis by ELISA, immunofluorescence tests (IFAT) and fluorescent in situ hybridisation. Treatment involves a combination of drugs such as azithromycin and atovaquone, or clindamycin and quinine, but more effective options are being investigated, including, but not limited to, trans-chalcones and tafenoquine. Improved surveillance, awareness and diagnosis, as well as advanced technologies to interrupt vector\u2013host interactions, are crucial in managing the increased threat posed by this once-neglected disease in humans.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/erm.2025.10016","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]],"date-time":"2025-09-05T04:34:06Z","timestamp":1757046846000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/policypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Human babesiosis: The past, present and future"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Madison","family":"Asquith","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05t1h8f27","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Huddersfield"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-0985-7506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sally","family":"Prior","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05t1h8f27","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Huddersfield"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9862-9805","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anke","family":"Br\u00fcning-Richardson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05t1h8f27","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Huddersfield"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"S1462399425100161_r79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics10060377"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2018.11.007"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1890\/0012-9658(2006)87[1981:LDALTT]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics11060947"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r24","unstructured":"24. CDC (2024) Data and statistics on babesiosis. Available at https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/babesiosis\/php\/data-stats\/index.html (accessed 10 June 2025)."},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00504-17"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2802.211596"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1586\/14760584.2015.1076339"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r23","unstructured":"23. NASA (2024) Global surface temperature. global surface temperature. Available at https:\/\/climate.nasa.gov\/vital-signs\/global-temperature\/?intent=121 (accessed 10 June 2025)."},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r84","first-page":"58","volume-title":"Atovaquone","author":"Papich","year":"2016"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r86","first-page":"22","article-title":"Current indications for the use of clindamycin: A critical review","volume":"9","author":"Smieja","year":"1998","journal-title":"The Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2022.07.005"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2018.04.019"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10020230"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11123358"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2024.107178"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.00925-22"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2006.01.035"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10111447"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2023.107069"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5962\/bhl.title.124068"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2256","DOI":"10.1097\/MS9.0000000000000567","article-title":"Human babesiosis, an infectious disease caused by protozoa: Transmission, pathogenesis, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment-correspondent","volume":"85","author":"MdR","year":"2023","journal-title":"Annals of Medicine and Surgery"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1537-2995.2000.40030375.x"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11040865"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-006-4181-2"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40588-015-0025-z"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r21","unstructured":"21. Ogden, NH , Bouchard, C , Brankston, G , et al. (2022) Chapter 6 \u2014 Infectious diseases. Available at https:\/\/changingclimate.ca\/health-in-a-changing-climate\/chapter\/6-0\/ (accessed 6 May 2025)."},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens8030102"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2019.01.007"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00022-10"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2015.09.008"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r29","first-page":"871","article-title":"The current status of human Babesiosis worldwide","volume":"14","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Public Health Weekly Report"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2013.0553"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10091165"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r40","unstructured":"40. Public Health England (2020) Rare Tick-borne Infections Diagnosed in England. Available at https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/news\/rare-tick-borne-infections-diagnosed-in-england (accessed 5 May 2025)."},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.34.11.2791-2794.1996"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0226781"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r19","unstructured":"19. Solan, M (2023) Babesiosis: A tick-borne illness on the rise. Available at https:\/\/www.health.harvard.edu\/blog\/babesiosis-a-tick-borne-illness-on-the-rise-202305032932 (accessed 6 May 2025)."},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-024-06385-4"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r65","first-page":"65","article-title":"Presence of potentially pathogenic Babesia sp. for human in Ixodes ricinus in Switzerland","volume":"13","author":"Casati","year":"2006","journal-title":"Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00204-21"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2019.06.002"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r13","first-page":"1","article-title":"Bemerkungen \u00fcber den durch Babes entdeckten Blutparasiten und die durch denselben hervorgebrachten Krankheiten, die seuchenhafte H\u00e4moglobinurie des Rindes (Babes), das Texasfieber (Th. Smith) und der Carceag der Schafe (Babes)","volume":"14","author":"Starcovici","year":"1893","journal-title":"Zentralblatt fuer Bakteriologie"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/0972-5229.194017"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007030"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.34.2.2385"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r98","unstructured":"98. 60 Degrees Pharma (2023) Clinical Development for Infectious Disease Medicines I 60P. Available at https:\/\/60degreespharma.com\/clinical-pipeline\/ (accessed 28 April 2024)."},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r34","first-page":"219","article-title":"Diseases and parasites [of White-tailed Deer]","author":"Campbell","year":"2011","journal-title":"USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiab538"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0908.020748"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00034983.1998.11813307"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/mmi.14650"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines12020141"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofaa448"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1004.030377"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r7","first-page":"1063","volume-title":"ScienceDirect","author":"Telford","year":"2006"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2023.102306"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.1039197"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12020300"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmrv.2016.04.002"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r4","unstructured":"4. UK Health Security Agency (2024) New Data Show a Rise in Travel-acquired Malaria Cases. Available at https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/news\/new-data-show-a-rise-in-travel-acquired-malaria-cases?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTAAAR0b5p8pAGe49r9qRPRsHj9151eXZjIqSE1V__H7YV4vJCJz-3iqYsMkNmY_aem_ATkWoT2xSqKqYRqogr_hp2vP87TYB11VFkJJVehKa-v9-3sSXNsU8DvtBsBTrRCwwQ_Qryyfw2LuWDmxbdFkFTmP (accessed 25 April 2024)"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(14)71062-X"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/20477724.2021.1989185"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00067-18"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2023.11.008"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2017.10.017"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2015.10.005"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10091176"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8081110"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idcr.2022.e01460"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r81","first-page":"104","article-title":"17-DMAG inhibits the multiplication of several Babesia species and Theileria equi on in vitro cultures, and Babesia microti in mice","volume":"8","author":"Guswanto","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal for Parasitology: Drugs and Drug Resistance"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.22-0178"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.16.4.622-636.2003"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r10","first-page":"479","article-title":"Theobald Smith \u2013 the discoverer of ticks as vectors of disease","volume":"114","author":"Assadian","year":"2002","journal-title":"Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.transci.2019.07.010"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.13.3.451"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10111430"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0163-4453(79)91219-2"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r51","first-page":"1120","volume-title":"Treatment of Human Babesiosis: Then and Now","volume":"10","author":"Renard","year":"2021"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r25","unstructured":"25. Data, dashboards and databases (2022) Available at https:\/\/www.ecdc.europa.eu\/en\/data-dashboards-and-databases (accessed 10 June 2025)."},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S305077"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2023.102291"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciad536"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r9","first-page":"692","article-title":"Sur l\u2019hemoglobinurie bacterienne du boeuf","volume":"107","author":"Babes","year":"1888","journal-title":"Comptes rendus de l\u2019Acad\u00e9mie des Sciences"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2012.12.005"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1239401"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/169.4.923"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2802.210213"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jcla.24427"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10121563"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2018.03.001"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r20","unstructured":"20. Ard, K (2025) Climate change and babesiosis seasonality in New England. Available at https:\/\/shmabstracts.org\/abstract\/climate-change-and-babesiosis-seasonality-in-new-england\/ (accessed 6 May 2025)."},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r67","volume-title":"Babesia and Human Babesiosis","author":"Gray","year":"2022"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofae028"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jca.21853"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00823-06"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2021.102351"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.01268-22"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiad315"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/IJGM.S485759"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2019.1622997"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajt.2023.03.013"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2021.04.008"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2008.78.117"},{"key":"S1462399425100161_r58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0099348"}],"container-title":["Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S1462399425100161","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,7]],"date-time":"2025-10-07T16:16:23Z","timestamp":1759853783000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S1462399425100161\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"references-count":105,"alternative-id":["S1462399425100161"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/erm.2025.10016","relation":{},"ISSN":["1462-3994"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1462-3994","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"assertion":[{"value":"\u00a9 The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}},{"value":"This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and reproduction, provided the original article is properly cited.","name":"license","label":"License","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}},{"value":"This content has been made available to all.","name":"free","label":"Free to read"}],"article-number":"e30"}}