{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T00:40:54Z","timestamp":1792111254856,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":146,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772755200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":64,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Law. Med. Ethics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Tort law has traditionally prioritized physical over emotional injury claims, due in part to insufficient methods of quantifying the latter. But advances in neuroimaging now make it possible to measure the distinct (and often chronic) neurological damage caused by PTSD, suggesting that it should be treated as both a physical and emotional harm. I argue that this recategorization may help PTSD victims win just restitution, especially for those from marginalized groups whose suffering has traditionally been overlooked and underappreciated by the legal system. Lingering probative and prejudicial flaws will likely limit current judicial applications of PTSD neuroimaging to citations of aggregate research. Until the technology improves in accuracy and sensitivity, individual PTSD neuroimaging on tort plaintiffs will fail to meet most state and federal evidentiary standards. When it does achieve sufficient reliability, neuroimaging precedent for traumatic brain injury may offer guidance on how to incorporate the technology without creating a \u201cCSI effect\u201d that harms plaintiffs unable to access or afford brain scans. PTSD neuroimaging may ultimately foster a greater appreciation for the physical toll of psychological illnesses, catalyzing the movement to dismantle the mind-body divide in tort jurisprudence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/jme.2026.10247","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T10:35:33Z","timestamp":1772793333000},"page":"263-274","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Body\n                    <i>and<\/i>\n                    Soul: How Neuroimaging Should Revise Tort Perspectives on PTSD"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"54","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-1440-0411","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandra","family":"Midler","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00f54p054","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Stanford University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"S1073110526102472_r133","unstructured":"133. Pustilnik, \u201cPainful Disparities, Painful Realities,\u201d at 54."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r73","unstructured":"73. Charles Allen v. Bloomfield Hills School District, 760 N.W.2d 811, 815 (Mich. Ct. App.\u00a02008)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r51","unstructured":"51. Hinojosa et al., \u201cNeuroimaging of posttraumatic stress disorder,\u201d at 3224, 3234."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r80","unstructured":"80. Inslicht et al., \u201cIncreased cortisol in women,\u201d at 826."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r143","unstructured":"143. Sweeton, \u201cPTSD as Bodily Injury,\u201d at 720."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fncom.2016.00066"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r66","unstructured":"66. Zilcha-Mano et al., \u201cDiagnostic and Predictive Neuroimaging Biomarkers,\u201d 688\u201396."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r128","first-page":"1119","article-title":"Through a Scanner Darkly: Functional Neuroimaging as Evidence of a Criminal Defendant\u2019s Past Mental States","volume":"62","author":"Brown","year":"2010","journal-title":"Stanford Law Review"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.44759"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r107","unstructured":"107. Federal Rules of Evidence, Rule 702."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r67","unstructured":"67. Brian A. Garner, Black\u2019s Law Dictionary, 11th ed. (Thomson Reuters, 2019), under \u201cbodily injury.\u201d"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r30","unstructured":"30. Committee on Pattern Civil Jury Instructions of the Seventh Circuit, Federal Civil Jury Instructions of the Seventh Circuit (2017 rev.), \u00a7 3.10."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r6","unstructured":"6. Grey, \u201cThe Future of Emotional Harm,\u201d at 2617"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r97","unstructured":"97. Coppola, \u201cThe brain in solitude,\u201d at 208."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r115","unstructured":"115. Pustilnik, \u201cPainful Disparities, Painful Realities,\u201d at 54."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r31","first-page":"321","volume-title":"Jury instructions on damages in tort actions","author":"Eades","year":"1993"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r40","unstructured":"40. Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association, 564 U.S. 786 (2011)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r103","unstructured":"103. The neuroscientist Matthew Lieberman contributed a report explaining that \u201cthe deprivation of [social connection] will not \u2014 unlike the deprivation of food \u2014 result in death in a short order, but like the deprivation of sleep or exercise, it will have very deleterious effects on both mental and physical health over time.\u201d For evidence, he described fMRI experiments in his lab that showed how social isolation activated the same neural circuitry as physical distress. Lobel and Akil, \u201cLaw & Neuroscience,\u201d at 68; \u201cAshker v. Governor of California,\u201d American Civil Liberties Union, https:\/\/www.aclu.org\/cases\/ashker-v-governor-of-california (last visited February 3, 2026)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/daed_a_00520"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijlp.2011.12.001"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r93","first-page":"260","article-title":"A Wrong Without a Right? Overcoming the Prison Litigation Reform Act\u2019s Physical Injury Requirement in Solitary Confinement Cases","volume":"115","author":"Filler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Northwestern University Law Review"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r125","unstructured":"125. Young, \u201cPTSD in Court III,\u201d at 88."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02699052.2023.2165152"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r32","unstructured":"32. Geistfeld, \u201cPlacing a Price on Pain and Suffering,\u201d at 782."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r146","unstructured":"146. Restatement (Third) of Torts \u00a7 46."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r134","first-page":"485","article-title":"Neuroscience and behavioral genetics in US criminal law: an empirical analysis","volume":"2","author":"Farahany","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Law and the Biosciences"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"39. Graham v. Florida, 560 U.S. 48 (2010).10.3109\/13693781003715229","DOI":"10.3109\/13693781003715229"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/NRE-141086"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r65","first-page":"194","article-title":"Neuroscience, Mindreading, and the Courts: The Example of Pain","volume":"18","author":"Greely","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Health Care Law and Policy"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r81","unstructured":"81. Although beyond the scope of this paper, interesting legal questions arise about who could use individual brain scans besides their owner, and to what ends. For instance, might an insurance company paying for an IPV victim\u2019s medical treatment be able to use their brain scans in a suit against the perpetrator, even if the victim didn\u2019t want to bring charges? More scholarship is needed to explore these issues."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r118","volume-title":"Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence","author":"Greely"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r120","unstructured":"120. Jones et al., \u201cBrain Imaging for Legal Thinkers,\u201d at 9."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r57","first-page":"688","article-title":"Diagnostic and Predictive Neuroimaging Biomarkers for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder","volume":"5","author":"Zilcha-Mano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r48","unstructured":"48. Yen et al., \u201cExploring the Frontiers of Neuroimaging,\u201d at 5\u20136."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r87","unstructured":"87. Graham v. Guilderland Central School District, 256 A.D.2d 863 (N.Y. App. Div. 1998)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r85","unstructured":"85. Courts have ruled in favor of victims of racial invectives when the perpetrator\u2019s behavior is repeated and consistent, especially when there is a power differential between the parties. Alcorn v. Anbro Engineering, Inc., 468 P.2d 216, 217 (Cal. 1970)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r127","unstructured":"127. Federal Rules of Evidence, Rule 403."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r50","unstructured":"50. Hinojosa et al., \u201cNeuroimaging of posttraumatic stress disorder,\u201d at 3234."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r63","unstructured":"63. Indeed, pharmacological treatments for PTSD such as antipsychotics can potentially impede recovery for TBI patients. Zilcha-Mano, \u201cDiagnostic and Predictive Neuroimaging Biomarkers,\u201d at 688."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r69","unstructured":"69. Terrafranca v. Virgin Atlantic Airways Ltd., 151 F.3d 108 (3d Cir. 1998)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r117","first-page":"1","article-title":"Brain Imaging for Legal Thinkers: A Guide for the Perplexed","volume":"5","author":"Jones","year":"2009","journal-title":"Stanford Technology Law Review"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r129","first-page":"40","article-title":"Neuroscientific evidence in the courtroom: a review","volume":"4","author":"Aono","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r15","unstructured":"15. This is unique to \u201cpurely\u201d emotional distress injuries. If the woman broke her hip and developed PTSD, she could receive compensation for the latter as a physical injury by proving it resulted directly from the former (although this can be challenging to do). See In re Air Crash at Little Rock, 291 F.3d 503, 510\u201311 (8th Cir. 2002)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r119","unstructured":"119. Hinojosa et al., \u201cNeuroimaging of posttraumatic stress disorder,\u201d at 3238."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r75","unstructured":"75. Pekin Insurance Co. v. Hugh, 501 N.W.2d 508 (Iowa 1993)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijlp.2011.12.001"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r7","unstructured":"7. Grey, \u201cThe Future of Emotional Harm,\u201d at 2619."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r104","unstructured":"104. In Porter v. Clarke, 852 F.3d 358 (4th Cir. 2017), death row inmates alleged that the conditions of their solitary confinement violated the Eighth Amendment, and relied on expert testimony and neuroimaging studies to contextualize the neurological harm of extended isolation. And in Palakovic v. Wetzel, 854 F.3d 209 (3d Cir. 2017), the Third Circuit Court of Appeals reviewed a case involving an inmate who committed suicide after prolonged solitary confinement. The court acknowledged research indicating that extended isolation can \u201ccause severe and traumatic psychological damage,\u201d including changes observable through neuroimaging, and allowed the lawsuit to proceed."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r22","article-title":"PTSD as Bodily Injury: Perspectives from Neuroscience and Medical Psychology","volume":"92","author":"Sweeton","year":"2024","journal-title":"UMKC Law Review"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r92","unstructured":"92. Mansoor, \u201cModern Racism but Old-Fashioned IIED,\u201d at 885."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r21","unstructured":"21. \u201cHow Common Is PTSD in Adults?\u201d United States Department of Veterans Affairs, https:\/\/www.ptsd.va.gov\/understand\/common\/common_adults.asp (last visited February 2, 2026)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.2407265"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r100","unstructured":"100. Ashker v. Governor of California, No. C 09-5796 CW (N.D. Cal. June 2, 2014)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r132","unstructured":"132. Cassin, \u201cEggshell Minds and Invisible Injuries,\u201d at 935."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r45","unstructured":"45. Cassin, \u201cEggshell Minds and Invisible Injuries,\u201d at 942."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijlp.2017.03.001"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r35","first-page":"1","article-title":"The thick skin bias in judgments about people in poverty","author":"Cheek","year":"2020","journal-title":"Behavioural Public Policy"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r86","unstructured":"86. Restatement (Third) of Torts \u00a7 46."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r19","unstructured":"19. TIP 57: Trauma-informed Care in Behavioral Health Services (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2014): 271\u201372, https:\/\/www.samhsa.gov\/resource\/dbhis\/tip-57-trauma-informed-care-behavioral-health-services (last visited February 2, 2026)"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r33","first-page":"90","article-title":"Putting a Price on Pain-and-Suffering Damages: A Critique of the Current Approaches and a Preliminary Proposal for Change","volume":"100","author":"Avraham","year":"2006","journal-title":"Northwestern University Law Review"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r114","unstructured":"114. \u201cPost-Traumatic Stress Disorder,\u201d World Health Organization, 2024, https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/post-traumatic-stress-disorder (last visited February 3, 2026)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r109","unstructured":"109. Pustilnik, \u201cPainful Disparities, Painful Realities,\u201d at 54."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r145","unstructured":"145. Even without an official neuroimaging requirement, the pernicious nature of the CSI effect could still disadvantage PTSD plaintiffs who do not want or cannot obtain brain scans. It may also have negative consequences for victims attempting to recover from other types of ED that elude neuroimaging diagnoses. As jurors reshape their understanding of PTSD as a physical injury, they may be more skeptical of cognitive injuries that lack the same empirical measurements. It will be important to continue tracking outcomes of cases that did and did not employ neuroimaging to assess the severity of juror bias. Although the barriers to neuroimaging vary, the CSI effect may be a ubiquitous result."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r137","first-page":"507","article-title":"The Myth of the Double-Edged Sword: An Empirical Study of Neuroscience Evidence in Criminal Cases","volume":"56","author":"Denno","year":"2015","journal-title":"Boston College Law Review"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r64","unstructured":"64. Amen et al., \u201cFunctional Neuroimaging Distinguishes Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.\u201d"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r144","unstructured":"144. Sweeton, \u201cPTSD as Bodily Injury,\u201d at 720\u201321; Ray v. Lesniak, 294 F. Supp. 3d 466 (D.S.C. 2018)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r59","unstructured":"59. Zilcha-Mano et al., \u201cDiagnostic and Predictive Neuroimaging Biomarkers,\u201d at 691."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r105","unstructured":"105. Davis v. Ayala, 576 U.S. 257 (2015).10.1038\/laban.800"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r14","unstructured":"14. Restatement (Third) of Torts \u00a7 46. An exception to this requirement may occur when the defendant exploits a known vulnerability of the plaintiff. For example, in one Texas case, the court ruled that a husband was guilty of IIED because he made use of knowledge of his wife\u2019s prior rape to pressure her into \u201cdeviate sexual acts.\u201d Intentionally exacerbating his wife\u2019s emotional vulnerability from trauma increased the outrageousness of the defendant\u2019s crime. See Twyman v. Twyman, 855 S.W.2d 619 (Tex. 1993)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r138","first-page":"324","article-title":"The Presumption of Guilt: Systemic Factors that Contribute to Ineffective Assistance of Counsel in California","volume":"45","author":"Benner","year":"2009","journal-title":"California Western Law Review"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022079418229"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r2","unstructured":"2. See White, No. 21-6007."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r96","article-title":"The brain in solitude: an (other) Eighth Amendment challenge to solitary confinement","volume":"7","author":"Coppola","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Law and the Biosciences"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r58","first-page":"175","article-title":"Regional Cerebral Blood Flow in the Amygdala and Medial Prefrontal Cortex During Traumatic Imagery in Male and Female Vietnam Veterans With PTSD","volume":"61","author":"Shin","year":"2004","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-024-02558-w"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r131","unstructured":"131. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act \u00a7 201(g)(1), 21 U.S.C. \u00a7 321(g)(1) (2012)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpsc.2020.03.010"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r46","first-page":"26","volume-title":"Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence","year":"2024"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858409333072"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r139","unstructured":"139. Ake v. Oklahoma, 470 U.S. 68 (1985)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r10","unstructured":"10. Cassin, \u201cEggshell Minds and Invisible Injuries,\u201d at 933."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r126","unstructured":"126. Schauer, \u201cCan Bad Science Be Good Evidence,\u201d at 1191."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r116","first-page":"1","article-title":"Public beliefs about trauma and its consequences: Profiles and correlates of stigma","volume":"13","author":"Clapp","year":"2022","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r78","first-page":"131","article-title":"Achieving Peace of Mind: The Benefits of Neurobiology Evidence for Battered Women Defendants","volume":"23","author":"Meszaros","year":"2011","journal-title":"Yale Journal of Law and Feminism"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/bsl.995"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r5","first-page":"2617","article-title":"The Future of Emotional Harm","volume":"83","author":"Grey","year":"2015","journal-title":"Fordham Law Review"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11524-017-0138-1"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r25","unstructured":"25. Paula P. Schnurr, \u201cEpidemiology and Impact of PTSD,\u201d US Department of Veterans Affairs, https:\/\/www.ptsd.va.gov\/professional\/treat\/essentials\/epidemiology.asp (last visited February 2, 2026)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r135","unstructured":"135. In Shaken Baby lawsuits, convictions have also been overturned because defense counsel failed to challenge the prosecution\u2019s medical narrative by presenting alternative forms of evidence. This underscores a precedent of treating the absence of scientific evidence as a form of lawyer incompetence. See State v. Edmunds, 2008 WI App 33, 308 Wis. 2d 374, 747 N.W.2d 590 (Ct. App. Jan. 31, 2008). A key difference to PTSD litigation, however, is that Shaken Baby cases often involve indigent criminal defendants who may benefit from state-funded appeals. Indigent PTSD plaintiffs in civil torts lack analogous support and may be disadvantaged by an expectation of costly neuroimaging."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0019045"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r12","unstructured":"12. Grey, \u201cThe Future of Emotional Harm,\u201d at 2610."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.53.2.306"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r28","unstructured":"28. Kentucky Traction & Terminal Co. v. Roman\u2019s Guardian, 232 Ky. 285, 23 S.W.2d 272 (1929)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0022146516645637"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r17","article-title":"The Experiential Future of the Law","volume":"60","author":"Kolber","year":"2010","journal-title":"Emory Law Journal"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11524-017-0138-1"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-017-0825-3"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r8","article-title":"Eggshell Minds and Invisible Injuries: Can Neuroscience Challenge Longstanding Treatment of Tort Injuries","volume":"50","author":"Cassin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Houston Law Review"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r62","unstructured":"62. \u201cDOD TBI Worldwide Numbers,\u201d Military Health System, https:\/\/health.mil\/Military-Health-Topics\/Centers-of-Excellence\/Traumatic-Brain-Injury-Center-of-Excellence\/DOD-TBI-Worldwide-Numbers (last visited February 2, 2026)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2005.05.014"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r70","unstructured":"70. Sweeton, \u201cPTSD as Bodily Injury,\u201d at 5."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r72","unstructured":"72. Charles Allen v. Bloomfield Hills School District, 760 N.W.2d 811, 815 (Mich. Ct. App.\u00a02008)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r1","unstructured":"1. White v. United States, No. 21-6007 (10th Cir. July 5, 2024)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18060\/3911.0005"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r37","unstructured":"37. Sweeton, \u201cPTSD as Bodily Injury,\u201d at 703."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r84","unstructured":"84. Mansoor, \u201cModern Racism but Old-Fashioned IIED,\u201d at 884."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r83","first-page":"887","article-title":"Modern Racism but Old-Fashioned IIED: How Incongruous Injury Standards Deny \u2018Thick Skin\u2019 Plaintiffs Redress for Racism and Ethnoviolence","volume":"50","author":"Mansoor","year":"2020","journal-title":"Seton Hall Law Review"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r11","unstructured":"11. Grey, \u201cThe Future of Emotional Harm,\u201d at 2610."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r111","unstructured":"111. Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r44","unstructured":"44. Cassin, \u201cEggshell Minds and Invisible Injuries,\u201d at 942."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r113","unstructured":"113. Individual neuroimaging studies will face an even higher evidentiary barrier than population studies if the subject is not demonstrably relevant to the plaintiff."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1229535"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0129659"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/009885880703300211"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r41","unstructured":"41. \u201cMagnetic Resonance Imaging,\u201d John Hopkins Medicine, https:\/\/www.hopkinsmedicine.org\/health\/treatment-tests-and-therapies\/magnetic-resonance-imaging-mri (last visited February 2, 2026)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-criminol-011518-024433"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r98","unstructured":"98. Coppola, \u201cThe brain in solitude,\u201d at 210."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r13","unstructured":"13. Restatement (Third) of Torts: Liability for Physical and Emotional Harm \u00a7 46 (Am. Law Inst. 2012)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r94","unstructured":"94. Filler and Greenfield, \u201cA Wrong Without a Right?\u201d at 259."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.whi.2008.09.005"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r27","unstructured":"27. Citizens Ins. Co., 962 S.W.2d at 452\u201353; Citizens Ins. Co. of Am. v. Leiendecker, 962 S.W.2d 446, 452 (Mo. Ct. App. 1998); Stuart v. W. Union Tel. Co., 66 Tex. 580, 18 S.W. 351, 353 (1885)"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r82","unstructured":"82. People v. Torres, 128 Misc. 2d 129 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1985)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r68","unstructured":"68. Terrafranca v. Virgin Atlantic Airways Ltd., 151 F.3d 108 (3d Cir. 1998)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3480865"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2021.08.011"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r20","unstructured":"20. TIP 57: Trauma-informed Care (SAMHSA): 271\u201372."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r102","unstructured":"102. Lobel and Akil, \u201cLaw & Neuroscience,\u201d at 68."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.33043\/JSACP.11.2.2-16"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r140","unstructured":"140. 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More severe injuries typically garner larger awards than less severe ones (indicating a degree of vertical equity), but the lack of horizontal equity within injury groups reflects the different methods juries use to translate suffering into dollars. Geistfeld, \u201cPlacing a Price on Pain and Suffering,\u201d at 784."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijlp.2011.12.001"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r141","unstructured":"141. Pustilnik, \u201cPainful Disparities, Painful Realities,\u201d at 65."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291710000401"},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r110","unstructured":"110. Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923)."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r16","unstructured":"16. Cassin, \u201cEggshell Minds and Invisible Injuries,\u201d at 935."},{"key":"S1073110526102472_r71","unstructured":"71. 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