{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T13:28:41Z","timestamp":1791293321814,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":155,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,12,16]],"date-time":"2013-12-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1387152000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Med. Hist."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2014,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>This article addresses the discussion about quinine-resistant malaria plasmodium in the early decades of the twentieth century. Observed by Arthur Neiva in Rio de Janeiro in 1907, the biological and social resistance of malaria sufferers to preventive and curative treatment with quinine was corroborated three years later by Oswaldo Cruz during the construction of the Madeira-Mamor\u00e9 Railway in the Brazilian Amazon. Likewise in 1910, ailing German workers were transferred from Brazil to Hamburg\u2019s Institute for Maritime and Tropical Diseases, where quinine resistance was confirmed by Bernard Nocht and Heinrich Werner. When the First World War saw failures in treating and preventing malaria with quinine along with violent outbreaks of the disease on the Turkish and Balkan fronts, resistance to this alkaloid became the topic of the day within the field of experimental medicine in Germany. New attempts were made to account for the resistance, especially by the physician Ernst Rodenwaldt, who explored the topic by applying modern theories on heredity. The present article offers a preliminary survey and analysis of pronouncements about quinine resistance, shedding new light on the circulation of knowledge in the field of tropical medicine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/mdh.2013.69","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,12,16]],"date-time":"2013-12-16T09:13:26Z","timestamp":1387185206000},"page":"1-26","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Malaria and Quinine Resistance: A Medical and Scientific Issue between Brazil and Germany (1907\u201319)"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"58","author":[{"given":"Andr\u00e9 Felipe C\u00e2ndido","family":"da Silva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jaime Larry","family":"Benchimol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,12,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0025727313000690_r20","unstructured":"For more on Neiva\u2019s campaign during the building of the railway in north-western Brazil, see Benchimol and Silva, op. cit. (note 5), 737\u201341."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r99","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r110","unstructured":"Ivone Manzali de S\u00e1, \u2018A resist\u00eancia \u00e0 cloroquina e a busca de antimalariais entre as d\u00e9cadas de 1960 e 1980\u2019, Hist\u00f3ria, ci\u00eancias, sa\u00fade-Manguinhos, 18, 2 (2011), 407\u201330."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r38","unstructured":"On Brazilian-German relations during the war, see Luebke, op. cit. (note 30)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r44","unstructured":"Nocht and Werner (note 2), 1565\u20136."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r86","unstructured":"For an overview of this discussion, see Ernst Mayr, O desenvolvimento do pensamento biol\u00f3gico: Diversidade, evolu\u00e7\u00e3o e heran\u00e7a (Bras\u00edlia: Universidade de Bras\u00edlia, 1998)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r106","unstructured":"Rodenwaldt op. cit. (note 105), 113\u20135. It is strange that Rodenwaldt\u2019s reaction only came two years after Schilling\u2019s article was published. We have not been able to identify the reason for this."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r122","unstructured":"Carta de Arthur Neiva a Octavio Gonzaga de 07.05.1935. Arquivo Arthur Neiva, CPDOc \u2013 FGV, RJ. Nota\u00e7\u00e3o: ANc 1916.11.27."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r140","unstructured":"W. Peters, op. cit. (note 139); Peter Bloland, op. cit. (note 137). The similarity of Peters\u2019 explanatory model (from the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine) to Rodenwaldt\u2019s is obvious: \u2018Parasital populations may adapt to the introduced chemical environment and thereby enter the state of drug resistance. They are capable of passing on their genetic information to future generations of drug-resistant malaria parasites\u2019."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leo Slater, War and Disease: Biomedical Research on Malaria in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick, NJ and London: Rutgers University Press, 2009), 11.","DOI":"10.36019\/9780813546469"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r139.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"11. See, for instance, W. Peters's 'Drug Resistance in Malaria - a Perspective', Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 63, 1 (1969), 25-40","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(69)90063-7"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r139.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"12. Jane Achan et al., 'Quinine, an Old anti-Malarial Drug in a Modern World: Role in the Treatment of Malaria', Malaria Journal, 10, 1 (2011), 144-56.","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-10-144"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r83","unstructured":"Ibid., 199."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r14","unstructured":"Neiva, op. cit. (note 4), 134."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r84","first-page":"141","article-title":"August Weismann, Charles Brown-S\u00e9quard e a controv\u00e9rsia sobre heran\u00e7a de caracteres adquiridos no final do s\u00e9culo XIX","volume":"5, 1","author":"de Andrade Martins","year":"2010","journal-title":"Filosofia e Hist\u00f3ria da Biologia"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r126","unstructured":"Cited in Ludger We\u00df, \u2018Menschenversuche und Seuchenpolitik: Zwei unbekannte Kapitel aus der Geschichte der deutschen Tropenmedizin\u2019, 1999, Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Sozialgeschichte des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts, 8 (1993), 10\u201350, here 21. For more on M\u00fchlens\u2019s time in Mexico in 1926, see Felix Brahm, \u2018Die Lateinamerika-Beziehungen des Hamburger Tropeninstituts, 1900\u20131945\u2019 (unpublished Master\u2019s thesis, University of Hamburg, 2002), 67\u201373."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r57.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"16. Bernardino Fantini, 'Malaria and the First World War' in Wolfgang U. Eckart and Christoph Gradmann, Die Medizin und der Erste Weltkrieg (Pfaffenweiler: Centaurus, 1996), 241-72, here 241-2. For more about British troops, see Mark Harrison, 'Medicine and the Culture of Command: The Case of Malaria Control in the British Army During the two World Wars', Medical History, 40, 4 (1996), 437-52","DOI":"10.1017\/S0025727300061688"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r57.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"17. C.H. Treadgold, 'The Prophylactic Use of Quinine in Malaria: With Special Reference to Experiences in Macedonia', British Medical Journal, 2993, 1 (May 1918), 525-9 and W.G. Willoughby and L. Cassidy, Antimalarial Work in Macedonia among British Troops (London: L.K. Lewis, 1918). For more on the French position, see Pierre Abrami, 'Le paludisme primaire en Mac??doine et son traitement', La Presse M??dicale, 17 (22 mars 1917), 161-4 and J. Bouygues, 'Le paludisme mac??donien', La Presse M??dicale, 13 (mai 1918), 244-6.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.2993.525"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r6.1","unstructured":"18. In order to lend legitimacy to the transformation of the laboratory created in 1899 to produce serums and vaccines against bubonic plague into an institute of experimental medicine where other biological products were made, microbiology and tropical medicine were taught, and research was undertaken in these areas, Oswaldo Cruz found different ways to associate the knowledge produced there with its different clients and the demands of the early republican years in Brazil and the international scientific community as a whole. For more on this, see: Nancy Stepan, G??nese e evolu????o da ci??ncia brasileira (Rio de Janeiro: Artenova, 1976)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r6.2","unstructured":"19. Jaime Larry Benchimol, Manguinhos do sonho ?? vida: A ci??ncia na Belle ??poque (Rio de Janeiro: Fiocruz\/ Casa de Oswaldo Cruz, 1990)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r6.3","unstructured":"20. Jaime Larry Benchimol, 'Pasteur, la sant?? publique et la recherche biom??dicale au Br??sil' in Nisia Trindade Lima and Marie-H??lene Marchand (eds), Louis Pasteur e Oswaldo Cruz (Rio de Janeiro: Fiocruz\/Banco BNP Paribas Brasil S.A, 2005), 215-73."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r127","unstructured":"See, for example, Peter M\u00fchlens, \u2018\u00dcber Plasmochin-Erfahrungen: Vortrag gehalten auf der Tagung der Deutschen Tropenmedizinischen Gesellschaft, T\u00fcbingen 12\u201314 September\u2019, Archiv f\u00fcr Schiffs- und Tropen-Hygiene, 33, Beiheft 3 (1929), 44\u201350; Peter M\u00fchlens, \u2018Die synthetischen Malariamittel Plasmochin und Atebrin\u2019, M\u00fcnchener Medizinische Wochenschrift, 79, 14 (1932), 537\u201346; M\u00fchlens, \u2018La lucha contra el paludismo con los nuevos medicamentos sint\u00e9ticos Plasmoquina y Atebrina\u2019, Revista M\u00e9dica Germano-Ibero-Americana, 5, 4 (1932b), 169\u201378."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r43","unstructured":"Ibid., 556\u20137."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r125","unstructured":"Wulf, op. cit. (note 3), 56; D\u00fcnschede, op. cit. (note 123), 77."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r102","first-page":"115","article-title":"Zur Frage der Chininresistenz","volume":"27, 4","author":"Schilling","year":"1923","journal-title":"Archiv f\u00fcr Schiffs- und Tropen-Hygiene"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r34","first-page":"499","article-title":"Studies of avian malaria and Brazil in the international scientific context (1907\u20131945)","volume":"18, 2","author":"Romero S\u00e1","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hist\u00f3ria, Ci\u00eancias, Sa\u00fade \u2013 Manguinhos"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r124","unstructured":"On this subject, see ibid. 55\u201382; Slater, op. cit. (note 115), 69\u201370."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r94","unstructured":"Ibid., 594."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Helen Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory: Empire, Development, and the Problem of Scientific Knowledge, 1870\u20131950 (Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 2011).","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226803487.001.0001"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r21","unstructured":"Neiva, op. cit. (note 4)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r58","unstructured":"Fantini, op. cit. (note 57), 247; 250\u20131 and J.A. N\u00e1jera, \u2018Malaria Control: Achievements, Problems and Strategies\u2019, Parassitologia, 43, 1\u20132 (2001), 1\u201389."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r108","unstructured":"Schilling, op. cit. (note 102), 117."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r69","unstructured":"Peter M\u00fchlens, op. cit. (note 64)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r22","unstructured":"Neiva, ibid., 135."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r90","unstructured":"Erwin Baur, Einf\u00fchrung in die experimentellen Vererbungslehre (Berlin: Gebr\u00fcder Borntraeger, 1919), 41."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r12","unstructured":"Neiva, op. cit. (note 4), 133; Neiva, op. cit. (note 10), 190\u20131."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r63","unstructured":"Alfred Plehn, a highly regarded doctor specialising in tropical medicine at the time, believed the hypothesis that the plasmodium could adapt to quinine in certain kinds of mosquito to be valid, but in 1918 he attributed resistance \u2018to the unfavourable somatic and psychic conditions of our troops in the Orient and of those \u201ccultural pioneers\u201d who make inroads into new malaria-ridden tropical regions\u2019. Albert Plehn, \u2018Ein chininresistenter Tropikastamm\u2019, Archiv f\u00fcr Schiffs- und Tropenkrankheiten, 22, 2 (1918), 201\u201311."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r71","first-page":"20","article-title":"\u00dcber das Verhalten des Chinins im menschlichen Organismus","volume":"21","author":"Giemsa","year":"1917","journal-title":"Archiv f\u00fcr Schiffs- und Tropen-Hygiene"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r52","unstructured":"Werner, op. cit. (note 36), 153\u20134."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"For more on the debate between the Mendelians and the Biometricians, see Robert Olby, \u2018The Dimensions of Scientific Controversy: The Biometric\u2013Mendelian Debate\u2019, British Journal for the History of Science, 22 (1989), 299\u2013320.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007087400026170"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r48","unstructured":"Nocht and Werner, op. cit. (note 2), 1562\u20133."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r120","unstructured":"On this topic, see Jaime Larry Benchimol and Luiz Ant\u00f4nio Teixeira, Cobras, lagartos e outros bichos: Uma hist\u00f3ria comparada dos institutos Oswaldo Cruz e Butantan (Rio de Janeiro: Ed. UFRJ\/ Fiocruz\/ Casa de Oswaldo Cruz, 1993), 118\u201321."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r80","unstructured":"Rodenwaldt, op. cit. (note 42), 574."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r13.1","unstructured":"40. Neiva's main references at the time of the Xer??m campaign were the treatises by Patrick Manson, Tropical Diseases: A Manual of the Diseases of Warm Climates (London and New York: Cassell, 1898)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r13.2","unstructured":"41. Botto Scheube, Die Krankheiten der warmen L??nder: Ein Handbuch f??r ??rzte (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1898)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r13.3","unstructured":"42. and Carl Mense (ed.), Handbuch der Tropenkrankheiten (Leipzig: Johan Ambrosius Barth, 1905), which were all published in several editions."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r72","unstructured":"Nocht, op. cit. (note 65), 431."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r3","unstructured":"The Institute of Maritime and Tropical Diseases of Hamburg was founded in 1900 with the aim of investigating the main diseases found in hot regions of the world and prevent them from being introduced to German territory. They inspected the vessels that docked at the port of Hamburg and treated the sick who arrived there from abroad. The \u2018Tropeninstitut\u2019 also trained the doctors who would be posted to German colonies. For more on the institute, see Erich Mannweiler, Geschichte des Instituts f\u00fcr Schiffs-und Tropenkrankheiten in Hamburg, 1900\u20131945 (Keltern-Weiler: Goecke und Evers, 1998) and Stefan Wulf, Das Hamburger Tropeninstitut 1919 bis 1945: Ausw\u00e4rtige Kulturpolitik und Kolonialrevisionismus nach Versailles (Berlin and Hamburg: Reimer, 1994)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r33","unstructured":"Andr\u00e9 Felipe C\u00e2ndido da Silva, \u2018A trajet\u00f3ria cient\u00edfica de Henrique da Rocha Lima e as rela\u00e7\u00f5es Brasil-Alemanha, 1901\u20131956\u2019 (unpublished PhD thesis, Casa de Oswaldo Cruz\/ FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, 2011)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r61","unstructured":"\u2018Although no declared position against prophylaxis was taken in German and Austrian medical publications \u2026as it was a military order, its repudiation may often be noted between the lines\u2019, wrote Rodenwaldt (Ibid., 568). The British openly questioned the preventive use of quinine, putting greater faith in mechanical forms of protection (mosquito nets) and eliminating breeding grounds. But this measure could not be employed on a large scale (Fantini, op. cit. (note 57), 247\u20138). In 1918, for instance, C.H. Treadgold maintained that the prophylactic use of quinine was a \u2018fraud perpetuated from generation to generation, simply because public opinion has never been duly enlightened so as to address the problem scientifically\u2019: see C.H. Treadgold, \u2018The Prophylactic use of Quinine in Malaria with Special Reference to Experiences in Macedonia\u2019, British Medical Journal, May 11 (1918), 525\u20139, cited in Fantini op. cit. (note 57), 263."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r68","unstructured":"Rodenwaldt, op. cit. (note 42), 561."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r70","unstructured":"Cited in Rodenwaldt, op. cit. (note 42), 564\u20135."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r56","unstructured":"Wilhelm Hoffmann, Los m\u00e9dicos alemanes en la Guerra Mundial: Su actuaci\u00f3n y experiencia (Madrid: Calpe, 1922), 195."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r116","unstructured":"Benchimol and da Silva, op. cit. (note 5)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r29","unstructured":"Ibid., 612\u20133."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r45","first-page":"141","article-title":"\u00dcber die Behandlung der Malaria mit Ehrlich\u2013Hata-606 und \u00fcber Chininresistenz bei Malaria","volume":"15","author":"Werner","year":"1911","journal-title":"Archiv f\u00fcr Schiffs- und Tropen- Hygiene"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r128","unstructured":"Bernhard Nocht and Peter M\u00fchlens, \u2018The treatment of malaria with Plasmoquine\u2019 (unpublished text \u2013 Arquivo Hist\u00f3rico do Bernhard Nocht Institut f\u00fcr Tropenmedizin, collection of articles)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r92","unstructured":"Ibid., 589."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r60","unstructured":"Rodenwaldt, op. cit. (note 42), 557."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r41","unstructured":"Nocht and Werner, op. cit. (note 2), 1557; Bernhard Nocht, \u2018Die Therapie der Malaria\u2019, Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift. 24, 12 (1909), 513\u201317."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r35","unstructured":"Benchimol, 1990, op. cit. (note 6), 34\u20137."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r36","unstructured":"An incomplete copy of Prowazek and Neiva\u2019s expedition report can be found in the Bernhard Nocht Institut f\u00fcr Tropenmedizin (Historical archive Bernhard Nocht Institut f\u00fcr Tropenmedizin, Akte 2\u20138, Reiseberichte, Kongresse, Stanislas von Prowazek: Zur M\u00fcndung des Tiet\u00e9, undated)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r78","unstructured":"Nocht, op. cit. (note 65) and Peter M\u00fchlens, \u2018Die Methoden der Malariabek\u00e4mpfung\u2019, Sonderabdruck aus Knolls Mitteilungen f\u00fcr \u00c4rzte, Heft 3 (1926) \u2013 Collection of articles in the historical archives of the Bernhard-Nocht Institut f\u00fcr Tropenmedizin."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r15","unstructured":"In studies undertaken in German colonies in Africa and New Guinea, Koch found that children who fell ill had high plasmodium levels in their blood, making them a key link in the plasmodium\u2019s life cycle. Those who survived childhood malaria acquired immunity to the disease. Koch\u2019s theory was out of step with the concept by which immunity was dependent upon the patient\u2019s race. It led to the elucidation of the role of (asymptomatic) carriers. Margaret Humphreys, Malaria, Poverty, Race and Public Health in the United States (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2001), 46\u20137."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r134","unstructured":"Gradmann, op. cit. (note 55)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7476\/9788575413159"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r76.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"61. Hoffmann, op. cit. (note 46), 193. In an article published in 1919, Martin Mayer states that the inducement of the manifestation of latent malaria infections was a 'well known practice of tropical doctors'. The patients were subjected not only to cold and warm baths and to physical exertions like horseback or bicycle riding, but also to X-ray exposure and other methods. Martin Mayer, 'Ergebnisse und Probleme der Malariaforschung im Krieg', Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, 45, 3 (1919), 59-62. Peter M??hlens also refers to these practices used for diagnosing chronic infections. Besides cold douches aimed at the spleen region and X-ray radiation, he mentions adrenalin or strychnine injections and administrations of small doses of quinine. Peter M??hlens, 'Malaria' in George Klemperer and Felix Klemperer","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0028-1137508"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r76.2","unstructured":"62. (eds), Neue Deutsche Klinik, (Berlin and Vienna: Urban Schwarzenberg, 1930), Bd. VII, Lehrgang 31, 122-49, here 129."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r133","unstructured":"Wolfgang Eckart, Medizin und Kolonialimperialismus, Deutschland 1884\u20131945 (Paderborn, Munich, Vienna and Zurich: Ferdinand Sch\u00f6ning, 1998), 521."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r25","unstructured":"Ibid., 137."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r111","unstructured":"This can be seen in a speech given by Carlos Chagas at S\u00e3o Bento in 1933: \u2018it was in this campaign [in Xer\u00e9m] that Dr Arthur Neiva verified, in a great number of cases, the appearance of acute manifestations of malaria when, outside the centres [of infection] the use of quinine was suspended. That researcher interpreted the fact as potentially indicating the existence of quinine-resistant hematozoon races, but the more widely accepted interpretation today is different, in which quinine, not destroying the parasites, prevents their intense proliferation in the organism\u2019, Carlos Chagas, Luta contra a mal\u00e1ria: Confer\u00eancia realizada em abril de 1933 no N\u00facleo Colonial S\u00e3o Bento (Rio de Janeiro: Tip. do Departamento de Estat\u00edstica e Publicidade, 1934), 20\u20131."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1590\/S0104-59702008000300009"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r107","unstructured":"Schilling, op. cit. (note 102), 115."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r66","unstructured":"Nocht, op. cit. (note 65)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r101","unstructured":"Some 30 Turkish leper colonies were under Schilling\u2019s responsibility with around ten thousand patients (ibid., 67\u20138)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r37","first-page":"53","volume-title":"Ein Tropenarzt erz\u00e4hlt sein Leben","author":"Rodenwaldt","year":"1957"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r77","unstructured":"Hans Ziemann, \u2018Die Malaria\u2019 in Carl Mense (ed.), Handbuch der Tropenkrankheiten, Vol. 5 (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1924), 356\u201360."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r64","unstructured":"Rodenwaldt, op. cit. (note 42), 555. A similar statement can be found in M\u00fchlens: \u2018For decades, Germany has been free from endemic and epidemic malaria, except in a few zones, like the north-west, the Oder and the Vistula estuaries or the neighbourhood of Leipzig\u2019: Peter M\u00fchlens, \u2018\u00dcber Malariagefahren und ihre Verh\u00fctung durch Chininprophylaxe und Chininbehandlung\u2019, M\u00fcnchener Medizinische Wochenschrift, 63, 39 (1916), 1398\u20139."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r88.1","unstructured":"71. Staffan M??ller-Wille, 'Leaving inheritance behind: Wilhelm Johannsen and the politics of Mendelism' in Max Planck Institut f??r Wissenschaftsgeschichte, A Cultural History of Heredity IV: Heredity in the Century of the Gene (Berlin: Max Planck Gesellschaft, 2008), 7-18"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r88.2","unstructured":"72. Lourdes Aparecida Della Justina et al., 'A heran??a genot??pica proposta por Wilhelm Johannsen', Filosofia e Hist??ria da Biologia, 5, 1 (2010), 55-71."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r85","unstructured":"Vanderlei Sebasti\u00e3o de Souza, \u2018A pol\u00edtica biol\u00f3gica como projeto: A \u201cEugenia Negativa\u201d e a constru\u00e7\u00e3o da nacionalidade na trajet\u00f3ria de Renato Kehl, 1917\u20131932\u2019 (unpublished Master\u2019s thesis: Casa de Oswaldo Cruz\/Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, 2006), note 116. Also see Nancy Stepan, The Hour of Eugenics: Race, Gender and Nation in Latin America (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1991)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r17","unstructured":"Ibid., 138."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r97","first-page":"142","article-title":"Bemerkungen zu dem Aufsatz von Ernst Rodenwaldt: Zur Frage der Chininresistenz der Plasmodien","volume":"24, 6","author":"Rosenthal","year":"1920","journal-title":"Archiv f\u00fcr Schiffs- und Tropen-Hygiene"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r131","unstructured":"Wulf, op. cit. (note 3), 84."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r10","unstructured":"Neiva, op. cit. (note 4), 133\u20134; Arthur Neiva, Mal\u00e1ria e mosquitos: Colet\u00e2nea II, 1906\u20131940 (Rio de Janeiro: Imprensa Nacional, 1941), 184."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u2018A synthetic analysis of Adolpho Lutz\u2019s trajectory can be found in Jaime Larry Benchimol, \u2018Adolpho Lutz: Um esbo\u00e7o biogr\u00e1fico\u201d, Hist\u00f3ria, Ci\u00eancias, Sa\u00fade \u2013 Manguinhos, 10, 1 (2003), 13\u201383. With Magali Romero S\u00e1, Benchimol coordinated the publication of Lutz\u2019s complete works, each volume containing comprehensive historical presentations in Portuguese and English.","DOI":"10.1590\/S0104-59702003000100002"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r105","unstructured":"Viktor Schilling, \u2018Kriegshygienische Erfahrungen in der T\u00fcrkei\u2019, Archiv f\u00fcr Schiffs- und Tropen-Hygiene, 25, Beiheft 3 (1921), 5\u201341. We did not have access to this paper, for which reason the quote is taken from Ernst Rodenwaldt, \u2018Zur Frage der Chininresistenz \u2013 Eine Bemerkung zu V. Schilling, Kriegshygienische Erfahrungen in der T\u00fcrkei\u2019, Archiv f\u00fcr Schiffs- und Tropen-Hygiene, 27, 4 (1923), 113\u20135, here 8."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r18","unstructured":"Ibid., 137."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r91","unstructured":"Rodenwaldt, op. cit. (note 42), 587."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r138","unstructured":"For more on the development of chloroquine, see Slater, op. cit. (note 115), 80\u20133."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r81","unstructured":"Rodenwaldt op. cit. (note 37), 195; 199."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r24","unstructured":"Ibid., 136\u20137."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angela N.H. Creager, \u2018Adaptation or Selection? Old Issues and New Stakes in the Postwar Debates over Bacterial Drug Resistance\u2019, Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 38 (2007), 159\u201390.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.shpsc.2006.06.016"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r54","unstructured":"Werner, op. cit. (note 36), 156."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r130","unstructured":"Peter M\u00fchlens, op. cit. (note 76), 138; 142."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r93","unstructured":"Ibid., 591."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r104","unstructured":"Quoted in Schilling, op. cit. (note 102), 115."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r26","unstructured":"Ibid., 140."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r113","unstructured":"In order to lend legitimacy to the transformation of the Manguinhos Serum Therapy Institute into an experimental entity where production, research and teaching were undertaken, Oswaldo Cruz had, to a certain extent, to associate the knowledge produced there with the prevailing social and political demands (Stepan, op. cit. (note 6), 109\u201312; Benchimol, op. cit. (note 6)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r7","unstructured":"Benchimol and Silva, op. cit. (note 5), 731\u20133."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r96","first-page":"23","article-title":"Zur Frage der Chininresistenz der Plasmodien der menschlichen Malaria","volume":"23","author":"Rodenwaldt","year":"1919b","journal-title":"Archiv f\u00fcr Schiffs- und Tropen-Hygiene"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r82","unstructured":"Ibid., 198\u20139. After spending some time at the Hamburg Institute for Tropical Diseases, Rodenwaldt went to Togo (then a German colony) as a doctor with the Colonial Service, staying there from 1910 until the end of 1913."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r27","first-page":"565","volume-title":"Oswaldo Gon\u00e7alves Cruz Opera Omnia","author":"Cruz","year":"1972"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r89","unstructured":"Alexander von Schwerin, \u2018Seeing, breeding and the organisation of variation: Erwin Baur and the culture of mutations in the 1920s\u2019 in Max Planck Institut f\u00fcr Wissenschaftsgeschichte, op. cit., 259\u201378; Jonathan Harwood, Styles of Scientific Thought: The German Genetics Community 1900\u20131933 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1993), 229\u201373."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r117","unstructured":"Magali Romero S\u00e1, \u2018The History of Tropical Medicine in Brazil: The Discovery of Trypanosoma cruzi by Carlos Chagas and the German School of Protozoology\u2019, Parassitologia, 47 (2005), 309\u201317."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r28","unstructured":"Ibid., 607."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r1","volume-title":"A Ferrovia do Diabo","author":"Rodrigues Ferreira","year":"2005"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r98","first-page":"145","article-title":"Zu obigen Bemerkungen Werner Rosenthals, G\u00f6ttingen","volume":"24, 6","author":"Rodenwaldt","year":"1920","journal-title":"Archiv f\u00fcr Schiffs- und Tropen-Hygiene"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r2","first-page":"1557","article-title":"Beobachtungen \u00fcber relative Chininresistenz bei Malaria aus Brasilien","volume":"34","author":"Nocht","year":"1910","journal-title":"Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r8","volume-title":"Prophylaxia do impaludismo","author":"Chagas","year":"1906\/7"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r51","unstructured":"Ibid., 1569."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r121","unstructured":"For more on Arthur Neiva\u2019s career, see Thomas Borgmeier, \u2018Arthur Neiva: A prop\u00f3sito de seu $60{{}^\\circ} $ anivers\u00e1rio\u2019, Revista de Entomologia, 11, 1 e 2 (1940), 1\u2013104."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r59","unstructured":"Mannweiler, op. cit. (note 3), 66."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r65","unstructured":"Rodenwaldt, op. cit. (note 42), 555; Bernhard Nocht, \u2018\u00dcber die Therapie der Malaria\u2019, Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift, 69, 9 (1919), 429\u201338; Erich Martini, \u2018Die biologische Malariabek\u00e4mpfung in Mazedonien\u2019, Zeitschrift f\u00fcr angewandte Entomologie, 7, 2 (1921), 225\u201386."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r40","unstructured":"Mannweiler op. cit. (note 3), 30."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r49.1","unstructured":"101. Heinrich Werner, '??ber einige Besonderheiten der Malaria aus Brasilien und ??ber die Behandlung dieser Malaria mit Ehrlich Hata-606', Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, 34 (1910), 378-81"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r49.2","unstructured":"102. Werner, 1911, op. cit. (note 36)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r49.3","unstructured":"103. Heinrich Werner, 'Weitere Beobachtungen ??ber die Wirkung von Salvarsan bei Malaria', Archiv f??r Schiffs- und Tropen-Hygiene, 16, Beiheft 1 (1912), 18-36."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r100","unstructured":"For further information about Viktor Schilling, see Mannweiler op. cit. (note 3), 199\u2013200."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r137.1","unstructured":"105. Peter B. Bloland, Drug Resistance in Malaria (Atlanta: World Health Organization and CDC, 2001)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r137.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"106. Harald Noedl et al., 'Malaria Drug-Sensitivity Testing: New Assays, New Perspectives', Trends in Parasitology, 19, 4 (2003), 175","DOI":"10.1016\/S1471-4922(03)00028-X"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r137.3","unstructured":"107. Umar Farooq and R.C. Majahan, 'Drug Resistance in Malaria', Journal of Vector-Borne Diseases, 41 (2004), 45-53."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r53","unstructured":"Ibid., 155."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r132","unstructured":"Heiner Fangerau, \u2018Das Standardwerk zur menschlichen Erblichkeitslehre und Rassenhygiene von Erwin Baur, Eugen Fischer und Fritz Lenz im Spiegel der zeitgen\u00f6ssischen Rezensionsliteratur 1921\u20131941\u2019 (unpublished PhD thesis: University of Bochum, 2000), 14."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r74","unstructured":"Ibid., 578\u20139."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r39","unstructured":"Nocht and Werner, op. cit. (note 2), 1558\u20139."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r11","unstructured":"Ibid., 167\u201394."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r123","unstructured":"According to Slater (op. cit. (note 115), 60), two of the motives for the development of synthetic malarial agents in Germany were the difficulty of procuring quinine during the First World War and the lack of any colonies where Cinchona could be grown. For more on the development of plasmoquine by Bayer, see Horst-Bernd D\u00fcnschede, Tropenmedizinische Forschung bei Bayer (Dusseldorf: Michael Triltsch, 1971), 55\u201382."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r129","unstructured":"Peter M\u00fchlens, \u2018Modern Methods of the Treatment and Prophylaxis of Malaria by Medicaments\u2019, Chinese Medical Journal, XLVII (1933), 1401\u201310."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r119","unstructured":"For more on these malaria eradication campaigns in inland S\u00e3o Paulo, see Francisco Salles Gomes Jr, Prophylaxia do Impaludismo em Vila Americana, Nova Odessa, Cari\u00f3ba e Salto Grande, Cole\u00e7\u00e3o Servi\u00e7o Sanit\u00e1rio de S\u00e3o Paulo, 9 (S\u00e3o Paulo: Weizflog Irm\u00e3os, 1919)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r23","unstructured":"Ibid., 135\u20136."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r73","unstructured":"Rodenwaldt, op. cit. (note 42), 573\u20135."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r62","unstructured":"Peter M\u00fchlens, \u2018\u00dcber die Malariabek\u00e4mpfung\u2019, in Jahrbuch 1927 des katholischen Vereins f\u00fcr missions\u00e4rztliche F\u00fcrsorge und des missions\u00e4rztlichen Instituts (Aachen: Aachener Missionsdruckerei Akt.-Gesellschaft, 1927), 11\u201318."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r103","first-page":"487","article-title":"\u00dcber die schwere zilizische Malaria","volume":"23","author":"Schilling","year":"1919","journal-title":"Archiv f\u00fcr Schiffs- und Tropen-Hygiene, Pathologie und Therapie exotischer Krankheiten"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r79.1","unstructured":"119. Rodenwaldt, op. cit. (note 42). On Rodenwaldt's career, see: H. J. Jusatz, 'Ernst Rodenwaldt (08.05.1878-06.04.1965)', Zeitschrift f??r Tropenmedizin und Parasitologie, 16, 3 (October 1965), 233-34"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r79.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"120. H.J. Jusatz, 'Ernst Rodenwaldt (1878-1965) als Begr??nder der geo-medizinischen Forschung', Heidelberger Jahrbucher, 14 (1970), 23-51","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-46251-1_2"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r79.3","unstructured":"121. Wolfgang U. Eckart, 'Generalarzt Ernst Rodenwaldt' in Gerd Rolf Uebersch??r (ed.), Hitlers milit??rische Elite: Von den Anf??ngen des Regimes bis Kriegsbeginn, Bd. 1, (Darmstadt: Primus Verlag, 1998), 210-22 and Manuela Kiminus, 'Ernst Rodenwaldt, Leben und Werk' (unpublished PhD thesis: University of Heidelberg, 2002). Part of his scientific work and career are described in Mannweiler op. cit. (note 3), 131-2 and Friedrich Hansen, 1907-2007: Deutsche Tropenmedizinische Gesellschaft - Eine Chronik (Hamburg: Deutsche Gesellschaft f??r Tropenmedizin und Internationale Gesundheit e.V., 2007). The dispute with M??hlens over the directorship of the Institute of Tropical Diseases in Hamburg and over the leadership of tropical medicine in Germany is analysed by Wulf op. cit. (note 3), 129-40. Rodenwaldt worked there between 1907 and 1910. In 1908 he travelled to South America as a ship's doctor with the Hamburg-S??d shipping line. He spent a month in Brazil and visited the Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, where Giemsa and Prowazek were working as visiting researchers. Ernst Rodenwaldt, op. cit. (note 37), 53-8."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r75","unstructured":"From 1897 Julius Morgenroth was one of Ehrlich\u2019s assistants in the Steglitz Institute for Serum Research and Serum Testing, near Berlin. In 1899, they moved to the Institute of Experimental Therapy in Frankfurt, where Morgenroth worked until 1905. From 1906 to 1919, he was director of the Department of Bacteriology of the Institute of Pathology at the Charit\u00e9 Hospital in Berlin, and from 1919 to 1924, the year of his death, Morgenroth headed the Department of Chemotherapy at the Robert Koch Institute. With Ehrlich, Morgenroth published a series of works on haemolysins and for this he is recognised as one of the founders of chemotherapy."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r4","first-page":"292","article-title":"Les injections endo-veineuses du bleu de m\u00e9thyl\u00e8ne dans le paludisme","volume":"1, 5","author":"Couto","year":"1910","journal-title":"Bulletin de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de Pathologie exotique"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r47","unstructured":"Neiva, op. cit. (note 10), 172\u20134."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r42","unstructured":"Ernst Rodenwaldt, Zur Frage der Chininresistenz der Plasmodien der menschlichen Malaria: Habilitationschrift zur Erlangung der Venia Legendi an der Ruprecht-Karls-Universit\u00e4t zu Heidelberg (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1919), 556."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r136","unstructured":"Creager, op. cit. (note 135)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r19","unstructured":"Ibid., 138, italics in the original."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r55.1","unstructured":"127. Christoph Gradmann, 'Exploring the therapeutic biology of the parasite: \"antibiotic resistance and experimental pharmacology 1900-1940\"' in Ana Romero et al."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727313000690_r55.2","unstructured":"128. (eds), Circulation of Antibiotics: Journeys of Drug Standards, 1930-1970 (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, 2010), 5-22."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r32","unstructured":"Hans Moritz Otto and Rudolf Otto Neumann, \u2018Bericht \u00fcber die Reise nach Brasilien zum Studium des Gelbfiebers vom 10. Februar bis 4.Juli 1904\u2019, Archiv f\u00fcr Schiffs- und Tropen- Hygiene, 8 (1904), 529\u201351 and H.M. Otto and R.O. Neumann, Studien \u00fcber das Gelbfieber in Brasilien w\u00e4hrend der auf Veranlassung des Institutes f\u00fcr Schiffs- und Tropenkrankheiten in Hamburg im Sommer 1904 ausgef\u00fchrten Gelbfieberexpedition (Leipzig: Von Veit, 1906). A historical analysis of this expedition can be found in Felix Brahm, \u2018Wissenschaftsf\u00f6rderung der Hamburger Wirtschaft und \u201cWissenstransfer aus Brasilien: die Gelbfieberexpedition des Hamburger Tropeninstituts 1904\u201d\u2019 in Sven Tode and Frank Hatje, Hamburger Wirtschafts-Chronik (Hamburg: Verlag Hanseatischer Merkur, 2003), 81\u2013104."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r67","unstructured":"Fantini, op. cit. (note 57), 242."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r95","unstructured":"Ibid., 598."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r109","unstructured":"Rodenwaldt, op. cit. (note 105), 404."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r118","unstructured":"Neiva, op. cit. (note 10), 120. For more on the sanitation movement, see N\u00edsia Trindade Lima and Nara Britto, \u2018Salud y Naci\u00f3n: propuesta para el saneamento rural: Un est\u00fadio de la revista Sa\u00fade, 1918\u20131919\u2019 in Marcos Cueto (ed.), Salud, Cultura y Sociedad en Am\u00e9rica Latina: Nuevas perspectivas hist\u00f3ricas (Lima: Instituto de Estudos Peruanos\/ OPAS, 1996). Gilberto Hochman, A era do saneamento (S\u00e3o Paulo: Hucitec, 1998), 135\u201358; N\u00edsia Trindade Lima and Gilberto Hochman, \u201c\u2018Pouca sa\u00fade, muita sa\u00fava\u201d: sanitarismo, interpreta\u00e7\u00f5es do pa\u00eds e ci\u00eancias sociais\u2019, in Gilberto Hochman and Diego Armus (eds), Cuidar, controlar, curar: Ensaios hist\u00f3ricos sobre sa\u00fade e doen\u00e7a na Am\u00e9rica Latina e Caribe (Rio de Janeiro: Fiocruz), 493\u2013533."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r16","unstructured":"Neiva, op. cit. (note 4), 134\u20136."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r30","unstructured":"On the political and commercial relations between Brazil and Germany see Gerhard Brunn, Deutschland und Brasilien, 1889\u20131914 (Cologne: Bohlau, 1971). Tensions derived from the World War are analysed by Frederich C. Luebke, Germans in Brazil: A Comparative History of Cultural Conflict during World War I (Baton Rouge, LA and London: Louisiana State University Press, 1987). For the Weimar Republic period, there is an ambitious study encompassing all Latin America: Stefan Rinke, \u2018Der letzte freie Kontinent\u2019: Deutsche Lateinamerikapolitik im Zeichen transnationaler Beziehungen, 1918\u20131933 (Stuttgart: Heinz, 1996)."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r50","unstructured":"Nocht and Werner, op. cit. (note 2), 1563\u20134."},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r46","first-page":"953","article-title":"\u00dcber die Wirkung von Methylenblau bei Malaria","volume":"28","author":"Ehrlich","year":"1891","journal-title":"Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift"},{"key":"S0025727313000690_r112","unstructured":"Neiva, op. cit. (note 10), 172."}],"container-title":["Medical History"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0025727313000690","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,12]],"date-time":"2020-08-12T04:49:46Z","timestamp":1597207786000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0025727313000690\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,12,16]]},"references-count":155,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2014,1]]}},"alternative-id":["S0025727313000690"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/mdh.2013.69","relation":{},"ISSN":["0025-7273","2048-8343"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0025-7273","type":"print"},{"value":"2048-8343","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,12,16]]}}}