{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T10:14:41Z","timestamp":1790417681411,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":120,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,9]],"date-time":"2015-09-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1441756800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.cambridge.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Med. Hist."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>This article discusses the medicinal remedies consumed at the court of the Yorkist kings of England in the light of a lawsuit in the court of common pleas (edited in an appendix) between John Clerk, king\u2019s apothecary to Edward IV, and Katherine Neville, Duchess of Norfolk, over the partial non-payment of the apothecary\u2019s bills. It argues that the consumption of apothecaries\u2019 wares in large quantities was not merely a direct result of the excessive diet of the late medieval aristocracy, but in itself represented a facet of the conspicuous consumption inherent in the lifestyle of this particular social class. The remedies supplied by Clerk over a period of several years and listed in the legal record are set in the context of contemporary collections of medical recipes, particularly a \u2018dispensary\u2019 in the British Library\u2019s Harleian collection generally attributed to the king\u2019s apothecary.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/mdh.2015.44","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,9]],"date-time":"2015-09-09T13:25:19Z","timestamp":1441805119000},"page":"511-524","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/policypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["The Medicines of Katherine, Duchess of Norfolk, 1463\u201371"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"59","author":[{"given":"Hannes","family":"Kleineke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0025727315000447_r27","first-page":"297","article-title":"The Corpse in the Garden: Mumia in Medieval Herbal Illustrations","volume":"7","author":"Camille","year":"1999","journal-title":"Micrologus"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r50","unstructured":"Myers, op. cit. (note 7), 123; Armstrong, op. cit. (note 7), 67."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r59","unstructured":"Rawcliffe, op. cit. (note 3), 40; Rawcliffe, op. cit. (note 1), 76."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r76","unstructured":"A confection made from rosewater, sugar and ground pearls. For a recipe, see Schultze, op. cit. (note 28)."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r47.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"4. Rosemary Horrox, The Black Death (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994), 173-6","DOI":"10.7765\/MMSO.34985"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r47.2","unstructured":"5. J.M. Riddle, 'Amber and Ambergris in Plague Remedies', Sudhoffs Archiv f??r Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften, 48 (1964), 111-22."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r14.1","unstructured":"6. For brief biographical details of these individuals, see G.E. Cokayne et??al. (eds), The Complete Peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom, 12 vols (London: St Catherine Press, 1910-59), vol. 1, 249-50 (Maltravers), vol. 2, 389-90 (Buckingham), vol. 4, 378-82 (Dynham), vol. 10, 826-7 (Richmond), vol. 12(2), 385, 392-3 (Warwick)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r14.2","unstructured":"7. J.C. Wedgwood (ed.), The History of Parliament: Biographies of the Members of the Commons House, 1439-509 (London: H.M.S.O., 1936), 389-90 (Grayson), 605-6 (Montgomery), 740-1 (Sapcotes)."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r36","unstructured":"BL, MS Harley 1628, fol. 98; MS Harley 2378, fol. 164v."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r10","unstructured":"Caroline Barron, London in the Later Middle Ages (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 287, note 120. Clerk\u2019s sales to the Duchess of Norfolk between 1463 and 1471 were said to have taken place in the parish of St Mary Woolchurch: cf. appendix, below."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ae\/42.3.175"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bdj.4811723"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r51","unstructured":"Dyer, op. cit. (note 6), 55\u201369."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r99","unstructured":"Saffron."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r81","unstructured":"A quince marmalade. For a recipe, see BL, MS Harley 2378, fol. 161r\u2013v. In November 1452 Margaret Paston asked her husband John to send her a supply of \u2018chardeqweyns\u2019 from London, \u2018for the eyeres be not holsom in this town\u2019: Davis, op. cit. (note 39), vol. 1, no. 144."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r75","unstructured":"Recipes for various ointments are found in BL, MS Harley 1628, ff. 89v\u201396r and MS Harley 2378,ff. 151r\u2013152r."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peter Murray Jones, \u2018Herbs and the medieval surgeon\u2019, in Peter Dendle and Alain Touwaide (eds), Health and Healing from the Medieval Garden (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2008), 162\u201379: 168.","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctvc16gkc.15"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r32","unstructured":"Jones, op. cit. (note 12). For a small collection of medical recipes associated with the household of another late medieval noblewoman, Elizabeth Scrope, Viscountess Beaumont and countess of Oxford, at one time wife of Katherine\u2019s stepson William, Viscount Beaumont, see Schultze, op. cit. (note 28). The preparations made by Katherine\u2019s first husband, John Mowbray, for Henry V\u2019s Agincourt campaign in 1415 included the acquisition of a range of medicinal remedies similar to those later consumed by his widow, among them \u2018chardequynse\u2019, rosewater, various electuaries against the pestilence and the flux, plasters and various pills: Berkeley Castle Muniments, Gloucestershire, General Account Rolls D1\/1\/130, m. 23. See Rowena E. Archer, \u2018The Mowbrays, Earls of Nottingham and Dukes of Norfolk, to 1432\u2019 (unpublished DPhil thesis: University of Oxford, 1984), ch.\u00a05, and eadem, \u2018Preparing for Agincourt\u2019: The Accounts of John Mowbray, Earl of Nottingham and Earl Marshal\u2019, forthcoming. I am grateful to Dr Archer for drawing this document to my attention."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r15","unstructured":"Another of these was Lady Katherine Moleyns, wife of Sir John Howard, one of Edward IV\u2019s carvers, who in 1465, during what was to be her final illness, bought from Clerk unspecified medicines to the value of 20s: Anne Crawford (ed.), The Household Books of John Howard, Duke of Norfolk, 1462\u201371, 1481\u20133 (Stroud: Richard III and Yorkist History Trust, 1992), pt 1, 505."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r52","unstructured":"Devon Record Office, Exeter receiver\u2019s account 29\u201330 Henry VI, m. 2."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r92","unstructured":"Mint."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r40","unstructured":"For the various imported commodities and the prices they commanded in mid-fifteenth-century London, see Helen Bradley (ed.), The Views of Hosts of Alien Merchants, 1440\u20134 (Woodbridge: London Record Society 46, 2012), 6, 7 (saffron, mace), 6, 10, 12, 14 (green ginger), 6, 11, 16 (cinnamon), 11 (cloves), 11, 16 (ginger), 19, 40, 48 (sandalwood), 25, 41, 55 (sugar candy), 26 (rhubarb), 31, 38, 56 (galingale), 107 (rose water), 107 (damsons), 134 (liquorice). In 1471 the East Anglian gentlewoman Margaret Paston, who was herself interested in medicine, instructed her son, John III, to procure for her in London as much sugar and dates as half a royal (5s.) would buy, and to let her know the prices that commodities like pepper, cloves, mace, ginger, cinnamon, almonds, rice, galingale and saffron commanded in the capital: Davis, op. cit. (note 39), vol. 1, no. 209A."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139167697"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r7.1","unstructured":"20. For Edward IV's gluttony, see A.R. Myers (ed.), The Household of Edward IV (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1959), 123"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r7.2","unstructured":"21. C.A.J. Armstrong (ed.), The Usurpation of Richard III (Gloucester: Alan Sutton, 1989), 67"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r7.3","unstructured":"22. Hannes Kleineke, Edward IV (London and New York: Routledge, 2009), 180-1"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r7.4","unstructured":"23. Thomas More, 'History of King Richard III', in Paul Kendall (ed.), Richard III: The Great Debate (London: Folio Society, 1965), 32."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r80","unstructured":"A composite powder, here apparently of four ingredients. For recipes see BL, MS Harley 1628, ff. 68v, 156v."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r84","unstructured":"Perhaps a composite water for the liver (Lat. epar, epatis). BL, MS Harley 1628, fol. 32 has a recipe for an electuary \u2018contra lapidem et pro epate\u2019. But note that Matthews, Royal Apothecaries, op. cit. (note 4), 48 identifies \u2018epithemata\u2019 as a removal of the skin."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r71","unstructured":"A recipe is found in BL, MS Harley 2378, fol. 120r (Henslow, op. cit. (note 34), 105)."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r93","unstructured":"A gum prepared from Egyptian mummies, used for treating the abdominal area: Getz, op. cit. (note 1), 343."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r78","unstructured":"Candied fruits."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r41","unstructured":"Bradley, op. cit. (note 40), 24, note 57."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r37","unstructured":"BL, MS Harley 1628, ff. 2v, 14v, 35v, 98v, 156."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r25.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"31. Edward Powell, 'Arbitration and the Law in England in the Late Middle Ages', Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, fifth series, 33 (1983), 49-67","DOI":"10.2307\/3678989"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r25.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"32. idem, 'The Settlement of Disputes by Arbitration in Fifteenth-Century England', Law and History Review, 2 (1984), 21-43","DOI":"10.2307\/743909"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r25.3","unstructured":"33. Carole Rawcliffe, '\"That kindliness should be cherished more, and discord driven out\": the settlement of commercial disputes by arbitration in later medieval England', in Jennifer Kermode (ed.), Enterprise and Individuals in Fifteenth-Century England (Stroud: Alan Sutton, 1991), 99-117."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r19.1","unstructured":"34. Michael Hicks, 'The changing role of the Wydevilles in Yorkist politics to 1483', in Charles Ross (ed.), Patronage, Pedigree and Power in Later Medieval England (Gloucester: Alan Sutton, 1979), 60-86: 68-9"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r19.2","unstructured":"35. J.R. Lander, 'Marriage and Politics in the Fifteenth Century: The Nevilles and the Wydevilles', Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, 36 (1963), 119-53, repr. in idem, Crown and Nobility 1450-509 (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1976), 94-126: 110-1."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r53","unstructured":"Rawcliffe, op. cit. (note 3), 40."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-4632.2009.04117.x"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r2","unstructured":"See, for instance, the dispute between the London surgeon Nicholas Sax and the Southampton merchant Edmund Broke over the fee for cure of a fistula (The National Archives (Public Record Office) [hereafter TNA], C 1\/42\/108; C.H. Talbot and E.A. Hammond, The Medical Practitioners in Medieval England: A Biographical Register (London: The Wellcome Historical Medical Library, 1965), 229), the suit by another London surgeon, John Broun, against John Dobson, vicar of Melbourne in Cambridgeshire, whom he had treated for palsy (TNA, C 1\/131\/8; Talbot and Hammond, op. cit., 128), or the litigation between the surgeon John Dagvyle and Thomas Medewe, the parish priest of Aspden in Hertfordshire, over payment for various remedies (TNA, C 1\/150\/8)."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r42.1","unstructured":"38. Pedro Gil-Sotres, 'The regimens of health', in Mirko D. Grmek (ed.), Western Medical Thought from Antiquity to the Middle Ages, Antony Shugaar (trans.) (Cambridge MA and London: Harvard University Press, 1998),291-318"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r42.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"39. Nancy G. Siraisi, Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), ch. 4.","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226761312.001.0001"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/shm\/1.1.61"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r82","unstructured":"A confection of sugar and honey with ginger, mace and cloves. A recipe is found in BL, MS Harley 2378, fol. 158v."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r90","unstructured":"For recipes for a variety of syrups, see BL, MS Harley 1628, ff. 79v\u201384v. A range of syrups was among the stock of John Hexham: Trease and Hodson, op. cit. (note 4) 79."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r12.1","unstructured":"42. Peter Murray Jones, 'Witnesses to Medieval Medical Practice in the Harley Collection', electronic British Library Journal, 2008, article 8"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r12.2","unstructured":"43. Tig Lang, 'Medical Recipes from the Yorkist Court', The Ricardian, 20 (2010), 94-102: 95."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r17","unstructured":"For what follows, see Rowena E. Archer, \u2018Neville, Katherine, Duchess of Norfolk\u2019, in Oxford DNB, sub nomine; Anne F. Sutton and Peter W. Hammond (eds), The Coronation of Richard III: The Extant Documents (Gloucester: Alan Sutton, 1983), 377; Cokayne et\u00a0al. (eds), op. cit. (note 14), vol. 9, 606\u20137."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780199729937.013.0018","volume-title":"The Oxford Handbook of Food History","author":"Freedman","year":"2012"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones, op. cit. (note 12), 7\u20138; Christiane Nockels Fabbri, \u2018Treating Medieval Plague: The Wonderful Virtues of Theriac\u2019, Early Science and Medicine, 12 (2007), 247\u201383.","DOI":"10.1163\/157338207X205115"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r74","unstructured":"A recipe containing scabiosa, pimpernel, common tormentil, smearwort, bolus armenicus, terra sigillata, theriac, conserve of roses, sugar and gold leaf is found in BL, MS Harley 1628, fol. 96v."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r70","unstructured":"Sugar candies for the chest. A recipe for \u2018Penydes\u2019, made with sugar, water and egg whites, is found in BL, MS Harley 2378, ff. 157v\u2013158r (Henslow, op. cit. (note 34), 121\u20132)."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r86","unstructured":"Mace."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r20","unstructured":"Sutton and Hammond, op. cit. (note 17), 34, 167, 169, 311, 350."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r16","unstructured":"George, Duke of Clarence, was executed in 1478; Thomas Rotherham, styled Bishop of Lincoln in the dispensary, was preferred to that see in 1472 and translated to York in 1480; Richard III appears both as king and as Duke of Gloucester; a recipe for Lady Dynham is dated expressly to 31 July 1483: Jones, op. cit. (note 12), 10,\u00a011."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r31","unstructured":"Trease and Hodson, op. cit. (note 4); TNA, PROB 2\/195."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r21.1","unstructured":"52. Jennifer Ward, English Noblewomen in the Later Middle Ages (London and New York: Longman, 1992), 84"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r21.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"53. C.M. Barron, 'Centres of Conspicuous Consumption: The Aristocratic Town House in London 1200-550', The London Journal, 20 (1995), 1-16: 9-10.","DOI":"10.1179\/ldn.1995.20.1.1"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r8","unstructured":"Matthews, Royal Apothecaries, op. cit. (note 4), 50\u20132, 58, 176; Calendar of the Patent Rolls, 1461\u20137 (London: HMSO, 1897), 122; Myers, op. cit. (note 7), 245."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r48","first-page":"7","volume-title":"Revolution and Consumption in Late Medieval England","author":"Woolgar","year":"2001"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r3","first-page":"160","volume-title":"Medicine and Society in Later Medieval England","author":"Rawcliffe","year":"1995"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r94","unstructured":"Presumably an electuary of rhubarb."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r22","unstructured":"Jonathan Hughes, Arthurian Myths and Alchemy: The Kingship of Edward IV (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2002), 197, 284; Rawcliffe, op. cit. (note 3), 164."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r66","unstructured":"Ibid., 74\u20135; Lang, op. cit. (note 12), 97."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r13","unstructured":"TNA, PROB 11\/7, ff. 62v\u201363r. Clerk\u2019s family connexions in London, which may be established from his will, are of no relevance to the present discussion. The identity of his first wife, Joan, has not been established, but his second wife, Katherine, was the widow of the fishmonger William Hayes, and brought him three stepchildren by her first husband, to add to his own three children, Humphrey, John and Christiana: ibid."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r23.1","unstructured":"59. John H. Baker (ed.), Legal Records and the Historian (London: Royal Historical Society, 1978), 3"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r23.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"60. Philippa C. Maddern, Violence and Social Order (Oxford: University Press, 1992), 27-31","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780198202356.003.0002"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r23.3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"61. M. Christine Carpenter, Locality and Polity (Cambridge: University Press, 1992), 705-9.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511522376.023"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r18","unstructured":"Joseph Stevenson (ed.), Letters and Papers Illustrative of the Wars of the English in France during the Reign of Henry the Sixth, King of England (2 vols in 3, London: Longman, 1861\u20134), vol. 2(2), [783]. The annalist was at pains to overstate further the age difference between the couple (which was certainly substantial): as Katherine\u2019s parents did not marry until 1396, she could not have been \u2018almost eighty years of age\u2019 in 1465, as the Annales claim."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r95","unstructured":"A pomander, against the pestilence. Recipes are found in BL, MS Harley 1628, ff. 14v, 35v, 68v, 73v, 155r and BL, MS Harley 2378, fol. 168v."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J.L. Bolton, \u2018Looking for Yersinia pestis: scientists, historians and the Black Death\u2019, in Linda Clark and Carole Rawcliffe (eds), The Fifteenth Century XII: Society in an Age of Plague (Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2013), 15\u201338: 33; TNA, CP 40\/813, rot. 1.","DOI":"10.1515\/9781782041665-006"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r39","unstructured":"Jones, op. cit. (note 12), 7\u20138; Nockels Fabbri, op. cit. (note 30), 247\u201383. In the late 1470s the East Anglian Paston family were particularly anxious to have theriac imported from Genoa: Norman Davis (ed.), Paston Letters and Papers of the Fifteenth Century, 2 vols (Oxford: Early English Text Society, 2004), vol. 1, no. 313."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r4.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"66. The classic general study by G.E. Trease, Pharmacy in History (London: Baillere, Tindall and Cox, 1964) is usefully complemented and updated by Rawcliffe, op. cit. (note 3), ch. 7. On the origins of the apothecaries' trade in those of the early importers of spices, see T.D. Whittet, 'Pepperers, Spicers and Grocers - Forerunners of the Apothecaries', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 61 (1968), 801-6","DOI":"10.1177\/003591576806100828"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r4.2","unstructured":"67. Pamela Nightingale, 'The London Pepperers' Guild and some Twelfth-Century English Trading Links with Spain', Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, 58 (1985), 123-32 and, for the identification of early practitioners in the English provinces, the work of Leslie Matthews and T.D. Whittet published in the 1960s and 1970s. On the evolution of the apothecary's profession see inter alia B.P. Flood, 'Sources and Problems in the History of Drug Commerce in Late Medieval Europe', Pharmacy in History, 17 (1975), 101-5"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r4.3","unstructured":"68. J.K. Borchardt, 'Medieval and Renaissance European Apothecaries: The Apothecary Profession', Drug News and Perspectives, 9 (1996), 372-6"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r4.4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"69. Jean-Pierre Benezet, 'Apothicaires et pharmaciens entre mobilit?? et s??dentarit??', Revue d'histoire de la Pharmacie, 86 (1998), 397-406","DOI":"10.3406\/pharm.1998.4700"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r4.5","unstructured":"70. Piers D. Mitchell, Medicine in the Crusades: Warfare, Wounds and the Medieval Surgeon (Cambridge: University Press, 2004), 13-4, 31-2 and passim"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r4.6","unstructured":"71. S.H. Smith, '\"The Physician's Hand\": Trends in the Evolution of the Apothecary and his Art across Europe (1500-1700)', Nuncius, 24 (2009), 97-125. For the nuts and bolts of the apothecary's trade, see also G.E. Trease and J.H. Hodson, 'The Inventory of John Hexham, a Fifteenth-Century Apothecary', Medical History, 9 (1965), 76-81"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r4.7","unstructured":"72. R.E. Zupko, 'Medieval Apothecary: Weights and Measures: The Principal Units of England and France', Pharmacy in History, 32 (1990), 57-62. On the regulation of the profession see, most recently, Volker Henn, 'Apothekerdienstbriefe, Apothekerordnungen und Arzneitaxen: Quellen st??dtischer Gesundheitspolitik des sp??ten Mittelalters', in Rudolf Holbach and Michel Pauly (eds), St??dtische Wirtschaft im Mittelalter: Festschrift f??r Franz Irsigler zum 70. Geburtstag (Cologne, Weimar, Vienna: B??hlau, 2011), 149-77. Specifically for the apothecaries serving the court of the medieval kings of England see G.E. Trease, 'The Spicers and Apothecaries of the Royal Household in the Reigns of Henry III, Edward I and Edward III', Nottingham Medieval Studies, 3 (1959), 19-52"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r4.8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"73. Leslie Gerald Matthews, The Royal Apothecaries (London: The Wellcome Historical Medical Library, 1967), 1-60, and for comparison idem, 'King John of France and the English Spicers', Medical History, 5 (1961), 65-76.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0025727300025928"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r24","unstructured":"It is just possible that the outstanding sum represented the bills run up during the period of the duchess\u2019s marriage to Sir John Wydeville from January 1465 to August 1469, but no such claim was recorded in court, and in the light of the difference in the couple\u2019s age and status it is in any event probable that Katherine maintained a household separate from that of her husband."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r44","unstructured":"Rawcliffe, op. cit. (note 5), 64\u201372."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r57","unstructured":"But note that in 1479 the Stonor correspondent Thomas Betson was treated for an unspecified but potentially fatal illness by a physician named Brinkley with \u2018plasters to his hede, to his stomake, and to his bely\u2019: Christine Carpenter (ed.), Kingsford\u2019s Stonor Letters and Papers, 1290\u2013483 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 344."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r46","unstructured":"BL, MS Harley 1628, ff. 28v, 33v, 34r, 35v, 75r, 96v, 156r."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medieval medical theory did not recognise the harmful effects of alcohol on the liver in the same way as modern science. The liver was regarded as the second digestive organ after the stomach, where the food, processed by the stomach and intestines, was transformed into the humours. Complaints of the liver were thus regarded as essentially digestive in nature. See eg. Margaret S. Ogden, \u2018Guy de Chauliac\u2019s Theory of the Humours\u2019, Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 24 (1969), 272\u201391: 275\u20136.","DOI":"10.1093\/jhmas\/XXIV.3.272"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2847795"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r91","unstructured":"Among the goods of John Hexham were no fewer than eighty glass bottles with various unspecified waters: Trease and Hodson, op. cit. (note 4), 79."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r5.1","unstructured":"80. One such example is the far shorter list of treatments provided by the London practitioner Richard Trewythian for the skinner Nicholas of Ely in 1444: Carole Rawcliffe, Leprosy in Medieval England (Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2006), 206"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727315000447_r5.2","unstructured":"81. and Sophie Page, 'Richard Trewythian and the Uses of Astrology in Late Medieval England', Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 64 (2001), 193-228 (for Trewythian). The account is found in British Library [hereafter BL], MS Sloane 428, fol. 18v. For three years in the 1350s, the records of Westminster Abbey provide the precise recipes of the medicines made up for ailing monks by the monastery's principal apothecary, Thomas Walden, senior: Harvey, op. cit. (note 3), 95."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r56","unstructured":"Devon Record Office, Exeter receiver\u2019s account 29\u201330 Henry VI, m. 2."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r83","unstructured":"For a recipe for a plaster for the stomach made of wheat bread, cumin, wormwood, mint and rose leaves, see BL, MS Harley 2378, fol. 28r; another recipe is found in MS Harley 1628, fol. 54r\u2013v."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r69","unstructured":"TNA, CP 40\/854, rot. 151d. Fifty-four of these barrels were said to have been purchased on 10 April 1465, the remaining 102 barrels on 4 October 1469."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r89","unstructured":"Cinnamon."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r65","unstructured":"Rawcliffe, op. cit. (note 1), 76."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r72","unstructured":"Roses, plums, crabapples and tamarinds. For a recipe for a conserve of roses, see BL, MS Harley 2378, ff. 165v\u2013166r."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r49","unstructured":"On the regimina sanitatis, see Carole Rawcliffe, \u2018The concept of health in late medieval society\u2019, in Simonetta Cavaciocchi (ed.), Le interazioni fra economia e ambiente biologico nell\u2019Europa preindustriale secc. XIII\u2013XVIII\/Economic and Biological Interactions in Pre-Industrial Europe from the 13th to the 18th Centuries (Florence: Firenze University Press, 2010), 317\u201334, and the literature cited there."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r73","unstructured":"Dragonwort, hyssop, roses and honeysuckle. Water of dragonwort was said to \u2018sle the wormes $\\text{w}^{\\text{t}}$ inne\u2019 a man, while water of honeysuckle \u2018sleth \u00fee cankyr in \u00fee mouth or in \u00fee body\u2019: BL, MS Harley 2378, ff. 150v\u2013151."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r87","unstructured":"For a recipe, see BL, MS Harley 2378, ff. 160v\u2013161r."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r96","unstructured":"Stavesacre (Delphinium staphisagria)."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r26","unstructured":"These waters were probably similar to the herbal waters referred to in the Lilye of Medicynes, a Middle-English translation of Bernard of Gordon\u2019s Lilium Medicinae, owned by Robert Broke, master of the distillatories and \u2018Maker of his Excellent Waters\u2019 to Henry VI: Linda Ehrsam Voigts, \u2018The Master of the King\u2019s Stillatories\u2019, in Jenny Stratford (ed.), The Lancastrian Court (Donington: Shaun Tyas, 2003), 233\u201352: 248."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r77","unstructured":"Recipes are found in BL, MS Harley 1628, ff. 14v, 98v."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r79","unstructured":"Ms coctarum. Presumably sugar of the third cut (of the sugarcane), the highest quality sugar: Bradley, op. cit. (note 40), 24, note 57."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r98","unstructured":"Galingale."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r88","unstructured":"Diatessaron theriac, a universal remedy against poison, but also recommended for stomach or liver trouble: Getz, op. cit. (note 1), 151\u20132. Recipes for both diatessaron and \u2018great\u2019 theriac (the latter including four times as many ingredients) are found in BL, MS Harley 1628, ff. 88v\u201389r."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r97","unstructured":"Ms termeriti."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r68","unstructured":"TNA, C 1\/15\/311."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r67","unstructured":"TNA, C 76\/159, m. 16."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r85","unstructured":"Green ginger, a sweet and sour ginger preserve. For a recipe, see BL, MS Harley 2378, fol. 162r\u2013v."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r33","unstructured":"Jones, op. cit. (note 12), passim."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r38","unstructured":"BL, MS Harley 1628, fol. 29v. Recipes for other electuaries containing gemstones, sapphires, gold and silver leaf for unnamed patients are found elsewhere in Harley 1628 (ff. 23, 24)."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r55","unstructured":"BL, MS Harley 1628, fol. 98."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r34","unstructured":"The manuscript has most recently been discussed by M.C. Jones, \u2018Vernacular Literacy in Late-Medieval England: The Example of East Anglian Medical Manuscripts\u2019 (unpublished PhD thesis: University of Glasgow, 2000), 130\u20134. Some of the recipes within are printed by George Henslow, Medical Works of the Fourteenth Century (London: Chapman and Hall, 1899), 74\u2013122."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r35","unstructured":"BL, MS Harley 1628, ff. 14v, 35v, 68v, 155; MS Harley 2378, fol. 168v."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r63","unstructured":"BL, MS Harley 2378, fol. 151."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r29","unstructured":"A recipe is found in BL, MS Harley 2378, fol. 158v."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"For a recipe, see Dirk Schultze, \u2018Hippocras Bag, Oil of Exeter and Manus Christi: Recipes in BL Harley 1706\u2019, Anglia, 126 (2008), 429\u201360.","DOI":"10.1515\/angl.2008.063"},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r11","unstructured":"For Marchall, see, most recently, Linda Ehrsam Voigts, \u2018A doctor and his books: the manuscripts of Roger Marchall, d. 1477\u2019, in Richard Beadle and A.J. Piper (eds), New Science out of Old Books: Studies in Manuscripts and Early Printed Books in Honour of A. I. Doyle (Aldershot: Scolar Press, 1995), 249\u2013314; eadem, \u2018Marchall, Roger\u2019, in Oxford DNB, sub nomine; and also Talbot and Hammond, op. cit. (note 2), 314\u20135."},{"key":"S0025727315000447_r9","unstructured":"The distinction between the early apothecaries and the pepperers and spicers, that is, those who traded more generally in spices, is blurred. In London, the apothecaries had apparently become sufficiently numerous to form an association of their own by the early fourteenth century, but within a few decades they were once more subsumed into a wider \u2018mistery of the Grossarii, Piperarii and Appotecarii\u2019 (Whittet, op. cit. (note 4), 802\u20134; Nightingale, op. cit. (note 4), passim). In the provinces, where the apothecaries were fewer in number, they often remained part of the associations of spicers and grocers throughout the medieval period (T.D. Whittet, \u2018The Apothecary in Provincial Guilds\u2019, Medical History, 8 (1964), 245\u201373)."}],"container-title":["Medical History"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0025727315000447","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,11]],"date-time":"2024-06-11T01:07:33Z","timestamp":1718068053000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0025727315000447\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,9]]},"references-count":120,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,10]]}},"alternative-id":["S0025727315000447"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/mdh.2015.44","relation":{},"ISSN":["0025-7273","2048-8343"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0025-7273","type":"print"},{"value":"2048-8343","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,9]]},"assertion":[{"value":"\u00a9 The Author 2015. Published by Cambridge University Press.\u00a0","name":"license","label":"License","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}}]}}