{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T15:57:25Z","timestamp":1790697445577,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":156,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,21]],"date-time":"2016-12-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1482278400000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.cambridge.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Med. Hist."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The history of \u2018electroshock therapy\u2019 (now known as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)) in Europe in the Third Reich is still a neglected chapter in medical history. Since Thomas Szasz\u2019s \u2018From the Slaughterhouse to the Madhouse\u2019, prejudices have hindered a thorough historical analysis of the introduction and early application of electroshock therapy during the period of National Socialism and the Second World War. Contrary to the assumption of a \u2018dialectics of healing and killing\u2019, the introduction of electroshock therapy in the German Reich and occupied territories was neither especially swift nor radical. Electroshock therapy, much like the preceding \u2018shock therapies\u2019, insulin coma therapy and cardiazol convulsive therapy, contradicted the genetic dogma of schizophrenia, in which only one \u2018treatment\u2019 was permissible: primary prevention by sterilisation. However, industrial companies such as Siemens\u2013Reiniger\u2013Werke AG (SRW) embraced the new development in medical technology. Moreover, they knew how to use existing patents on the electrical anaesthesia used for slaughtering to maintain a leading position in the new electroshock therapy market. Only after the end of the official \u2018euthanasia\u2019 murder operation in August 1941, entitled T4, did the psychiatric elite begin to promote electroshock therapy as a modern \u2018unspecific\u2019 treatment in order to reframe psychiatry as an \u2018honorable\u2019 medical discipline. War-related shortages hindered even the then politically supported production of electroshock devices. Research into electroshock therapy remained minimal and was mainly concerned with internationally shared safety concerns regarding its clinical application. However, within the Third Reich, electroshock therapy was not only introduced in psychiatric hospitals, asylums, and in the Auschwitz concentration camp in order to get patients back to work, it was also modified for \u2018euthanasia\u2019 murder.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/mdh.2016.101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,21]],"date-time":"2016-12-21T09:53:47Z","timestamp":1482314027000},"page":"66-88","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/policypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["\u2018Electroshock Therapy\u2019 in the Third Reich"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"61","author":[{"given":"Lara","family":"Rzesnitzek","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sascha","family":"Lang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0025727316001010_r119","unstructured":"G\u00f6tz Aly, \u2018\u00a0\u201cAktion Brandt\u201d: Bombenkrieg, Bettenbedarf und \u201cEuthanasie\u201d\u00a0\u2019, in Aly (ed.), op. cit. (note 5), 168\u201382: 172."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r117","unstructured":"Michaela Gaunerstorfer, \u2018Die psychiatrische Heil- und Pflegeanstalt Mauer-\u00d6hling 1938\u201345\u2019 (Dissertation: University of Vienna, 1989)."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r116","unstructured":"Angela Danbauer, \u2018Die Heil und Pflegeanstalt Gugging w\u00e4hrend der NS-Zeit\u2019 (Dissertation: University of Vienna, 2012)."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r113","unstructured":"Personal record Dr Horst Fischer dated 14 August 1965, cited Dirks, op. cit. (note 106), 137."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r109","unstructured":"Dirks, op. cit. (note 106), 136; Drohocki, op. cit. (note 105), 163f."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r102","unstructured":"Schmieder to P\u00e4tzold dated 27 November 1942, SMAZ, E-Lab, E3."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r125","unstructured":"Czech, op. cit. (note 5), 112: \u2018Holzer was in contact with the medical director of the T4 program, Professor Paul Nitsche, to promote his device and his plans for a research institute\u2026. In a planning document submitted to the T4, he cited the window of opportunity opened by the ongoing euthanasia killings as the main motive for his project\u2019; Hubensdorf, op. cit. (note 5), 375\u20138."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r123","unstructured":"Peter Sandner, Verwaltung des Krankenmordes. Der Bezirksverband Nassau im Nationalsozialismus.Historische Schriftenreihe des Landeswohlfahrtsverbandes Hessen. Hochschulschriften, 2 (Gie\u00dfen: Psychosozial, 2003)."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r127","unstructured":"Holzer, op. cit. (note 48), 10."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r120","unstructured":"Heinz W. Arnberger, Dokumentationsarchiv des \u00d6sterreichischen Widerstandes, Widerstand und Verfolgung in Nieder\u00f6sterreich 1934\u20131945 (Vienna: \u00d6sterr. Bundesverlag, 1987), 656."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r101","unstructured":"BArch R 96 I-4."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r97","unstructured":"Adolf Bingel, \u2018\u00dcber die psychischen und chirurgischen Komplikationen der Elektrokrampftherapie\u2019, Allgemeine Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Psychiatrie, 115 (1940), 325\u201343: 342."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gerhard F\u00fcrstler and Peter Malina, \u2018Ich tat nur meinen Dienst\u2019: Zur Geschichte der Krankenpflege in \u00d6sterreich in der NS-Zeit (Vienna: Facultas, 2004). Gelny also used others methods for killing.","DOI":"10.1024\/1012-5302.18.1.64c"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r112","unstructured":"Dirks, op. cit. (note 106), 137."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r110","unstructured":"Dirks, op. cit. (note 106), 137."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r71","unstructured":"Heuyer [Georges], Bour and Feld, \u2018\u00c9lectro-choc chez des adolescents\u2019, Annales M\u00e9dico-Psychologiques, 100 (1942), 75\u201384."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r45","unstructured":"Holzer to the SRW-Vienna, 24 September 1941, SMAZ, E-Lab, electro shock 1940\u20131941 [unsigned, abbreviated E2 in the following]."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r46.1","unstructured":"18. Anton v[on] Braunm??hl, 'Der Elektrokrampf in der Psychiatrie', M??nchner Medizinische Wochenschrift, 87 (1940), 511-4"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r46.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"19. Anton v[on] Braunm??hl, '??ber mobile Elektrodentechnik bei der Elektrokrampftherapie', Archiv f??r Psychiatrie, 114 (1942), 605-610. From an aristocratic Catholic family, Braunm??hl was never a member of the NSDAP. In 1946, the American Military Government gave him the directorship of Eglfing-Haar and in 1947 an honorary professorship for medicine in Munich (UAM E II 980, university archive LMU Munich).","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02141309"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r62","unstructured":"BArch R 96 I\u201311; compare: Hans Walter Schmuhl, Die Gesellschaft Deutscher Neurologen und Psychiater im Nationalsozialismus (Berlin: Springer, 2016)."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r108","unstructured":"Drohocki, op. cit. (note 105), 165."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r57","unstructured":"Klaus J\u00fcrgen Neum\u00e4rker K.-J., Karl Bonhoeffer: Leben und Werk eines deutschen Psychiaters und Neurologen in seiner Zeit (Leipzig: Hirzel, 1990)."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r35","unstructured":"Anton Bingel and Friedrich Meggendorfer, \u2018\u00dcber die ersten deutschen Versuche einer Elektrokrampfbehandlung der Geisteskrankheiten\u2019, Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Wochenschrift, 42 (1940), 41\u201343."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r11","unstructured":"See Lara Rzesnitzek, \u2018Lothar B. Kalinowsky und die Einf\u00fchrung der Elektrokrampftherapie in Europa: Die verflochtene Geschichte eines \u201czuf\u00e4lligen\u201d Aufbruchs \u201cwider Willen\u201d?\u2019, in Schmuhl and Roelcke (eds), op. cit. (note 5), 200\u201315; Isabelle von Bueltzingsloewen, \u2018Un fol espoir th\u00e9rapeutique? L\u2019Introduction de l\u2019\u00e9lectrochoc dans les h\u00f4pitaux psychiatriques fran\u00e7ais (1941\/1942\u20131945)\u2019, Annales historiques de l\u2019\u00e9lectricit\u00e9, 8 (2010), 93\u2013104; Rudolf Nowak, \u2018Zur Fr\u00fchgeschichte der Elektrokrampftherapie in der deutschen Psychiatrie\u2019 (unpublished PhD thesis: University of Leipzig, 2000); Lara Rzesnitzek, \u2018 \u201cSchocktherapien\u201d im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland: Am Beispiel der Berliner Psychiatrie\u2019, Nervenarzt, 85 (2013), 1175\u201381; Holm Krumpolt, \u2018Die Auswirkungen der nationalsozialistischen Psychiatriepolitik auf die s\u00e4chsische Landesheilanstalt Gro\u00dfschweidnitz im Zeitraum 1939\u201345\u2019 (unpublished PhD thesis: University of Leipzig, 1995); Erik Robert Heintz, \u2018Die Einf\u00fchrung der Elektrokrampftherapie an der Psychiatrischen und Nervenklinik der Universit\u00e4t M\u00fcnchen 1941 bis 1945\u2019 (unpublished PhD thesis: Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 2004); Hendrik van den Bussche, \u2018Personalprobleme, Disziplinkrise und Selbstdeprofessionalisierung der Psychiatrie im Nationalsozialismus\u2019, Schriftenreihe der Deutschen Gesellschaft f\u00fcr Geschichte der Nervenheilkunde, 21 (2015), 127\u2013169."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)73899-2"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r78","unstructured":"Ernst Klee, Das Personenlexikon zum Dritten Reich: Wer war was vor und nach 1945 (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 4. Aktualisierte Auflage 2013), 515."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r83","unstructured":"Rosemarie Sch\u00f6ne and Dieter Sch\u00f6ne, \u2018Zur Entwicklung und klinischen Anwendung neuer somatischer Therapiemethoden der Psychiatrie in den 30er Jahren des 20. Jahrhunderts unter besonderer Ber\u00fccksichtigung der Schocktherapien und deren Nutzung in den deutschen Heil- und Pflegeanstalten\u2019 (Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Dr med. Leipzig, 1987), 76."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r91","unstructured":"Internal Memo branch Mannheim dated 16 July 1942, SMAZ, E-Lab, E3."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r13","unstructured":"Ugo Cerletti, \u2018Electroshock therapy\u2019, in Arthur M. Sackler et al. (eds), The Great Physiodynamic Therapies in Psychiatry (New York: Hoeber-Harper, 1956), 91\u2013120: 91; compare: Lothar Kalinowsky, \u2018Lothar B. Kalinowsky\u2019, in Ludwig J. Pongratz (ed.), Psychiatrie in Selbstdarstellungen (Berne: Hans Huber), 147\u201364, 154."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r47","volume-title":"Physikalische Medizin in Diagnostik und Therapie","author":"Holzer","year":"1940"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r9","unstructured":"Schmuhl and Roelcke, op. cit. (note 5), 16 and 10; Hubenstorf, op. cit. (note 5), 375."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r56","unstructured":"Hamann-Roth, op. cit. (note 36); Rzesnitzek, \u2018Schocktherapien\u2019, op. cit. (note 11)."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r49.1","unstructured":"31. SRW-Erlangen to SRW-Berlin, 18 July 1941, SMAZ, E-Lab, E1"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r49.2","unstructured":"32. Braunm??hl to SRW-Erlangen, 9 April??1940"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r49.3","unstructured":"33. P??tzold to von Braunm??hl, 4 April 1940, SMAZ, E-Lab, E2"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r49.4","unstructured":"34. memo P??tzold, 6 December 1939, SMAZ, E-Lab, E1."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2007-999155"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r90","unstructured":"Van den Bussche, op. cit., (note 11), 164."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r94","unstructured":"Sascha Lang, \u2018R\u00f6ntgenozid\u2019 [X-ray Genocide] (dissertation in preparation: University of Bielefeld) ."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02877960"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r106","unstructured":"Christian Dirks. \u2018Die Verbrechen der anderen\u2019: Auschwitz und der Auschwitz-Prozess der DDR: Das Verfahren gegen den KZ-Arzt Dr. Horst Fischer (Paderborn: Sch\u00f6ningh: Paderborn, 2005), ch. 3.4, 134. On Drohocki\u2019s research activity, see n.\u00a0268."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r122","unstructured":"Report Dr Elisabeth V., dated 9 August 1945, Eichberg Trial, cited in: Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: Euthanasia in Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 262."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r42","first-page":"97","article-title":"Erfahrungen bei \u00fcber 1500 Elektroschockf\u00e4llen","volume":"44","author":"Buchner","year":"1942","journal-title":"Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Wochenschrift"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0033-1350581"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1525\/9780520917934","volume-title":"Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century","author":"Braslow","year":"1997"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r99.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"39. H. A. Palmer, 'Vertebral Fractures Complicating Convulsion Therapy', Lancet, 234 (1939), 181-2","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)61947-5"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r99.2","unstructured":"40. A.??E. Bennett, 'Preventing Traumatic Complications in Convulsive Therapy', Journal of the American Medical Association, 114 (1940), 322-4."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r10.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"41. Robert Passione, 'Italian Psychiatry in an International Context: Ugo Cerletti and the Case of Electroshock', History of Psychiatry, 15 (2004), 83-104","DOI":"10.1177\/0957154X04039347"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r10.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"42. German E. Berrios, 'The Scientific Origins of Electroconvulsive Therapy: A Conceptual History', History of Psychiatry, 8 (1997), 105-19","DOI":"10.1177\/0957154X9700802908"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r10.3","unstructured":"43. Norman Endler, 'The Origins of Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)', Convulsive Therapy, 4 (1988), 5-23."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r10.4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"44. See Shorter and Healy, op. cit. (note 3); Robert Passione, 'Italian Psychiatry in an International Context: Ugo Cerletti and the Case of Electroshock', History of Psychiatry, 15 (2004), 83-104; German E. Berrios, 'The Scientific Origins of Electroconvulsive Therapy: A Conceptual History', History of Psychiatry, 8 (1997), 105-19; Norman Endler, 'The Origins of Electroconvulsive Therapy","DOI":"10.1177\/0957154X9700802908"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r10.5","unstructured":"45. (ECT)', Convulsive Therapy, 4 (1988), 5-23."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r88","unstructured":"Rzesnitzek, \u2018Schocktherapien\u2019, op. cit. (note 11)."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r64.1","unstructured":"47. IWF film Archive, C426, 'Elektroschock' (publ. 1943, produced in 1941-1942)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r64.2","unstructured":"48. see further: Ulf Schmidt, Medical Films, Ethics and Euthanasia in Nazi Germany: The History of Medical Research and Teaching Films of the Reich Office for Educational Films\/Reich Institute for Films in Science and Education, 1933-1945 (Husum: Matthiesen, 2002)."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r54.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"49. Karl Bonhoeffer, Die Geschichte der Psychiatrie in der Charit?? im 19. Jahrhundert[Sonderdruck aus der Zeitschrift f??r die gesamte Psychiatrie und Neurologie 168] (Berlin: Springer, 1940)","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-29027-9"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r54.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"50. Karl Bonhoeffer, Nerven??rztliche Erfahrungen und Eindr??cke (Berlin: Springer, 1941).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-99602-3"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r126","unstructured":"As Czech, op. cit. (note 5), 112 suggests."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r40.1","unstructured":"52. Wolfgang Holzer, '??ber die Methodik der Elektroschocktherapie', Allgemeine Zeitschrift f??r Psychiatrie, 118 (1941), 357-379"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r40.2","unstructured":"53. Wolfgang Holzer, '??ber eine Entwicklungsreihe von Elektroschockger??ten', Allgemeine Zeitschrift f??r Psychiatrie, 121 (1942), 124-40."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r76","unstructured":"Van den Bussche, op. cit. (note 11), 151\u20133."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r66","unstructured":"After the order of seven Konvulsatoren was delayed, the final order to SRW was corrected to a total of 88 devices (list of ordered Siemens Konvulsatoren, 6 April 1943; Hegener to SRW-Berlin, 9 April 1943, BArch, R 96 I-12). Until the end of 1942, besides the Austrian cities of Linz, Salzburg, Graz and Innsbruck, only some Bavarian hospitals and the mental institutions in Berlin, and three hospitals in W\u00fcrttemberg: T\u00fcbingen, Weinsberg and G\u00f6ppingen, had been equipped with electroshock devices; compare BArch, R 96 I-12, page 50\u201351."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r34.1","unstructured":"56. Report by SRW-Erlangen about a trip to Munich on 7 and 8 October 1941, 10 October 1941, SMAZ, E-Lab, E1"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r34.2","unstructured":"57. it fits that it is only from March 1941 that usage of electroshock therapy can be proven in the medical files of the Munich clinic, compare Heintz, op. cit. (note 11), 31."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r58","unstructured":"Henneberg, \u2018Sitzungsbericht der Berliner Gesellschaft f\u00fcr Psychiatrie und Neurologie, Sitzung vom 9. Juni 1941, Bericht \u00fcber Erfahrungen mit der Elektrokrampfbehandlung bei Psychosen\u2019, Klinische Wochenschrift, 20 (1941), 967."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r79","unstructured":"Letter of Runckel to Nitsche 30 June 1944, cited in Faulstich, op. cit. (note 51), 652."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r51","volume-title":"Hungersterben in der Psychiatrie 1914\u20131949","author":"Faulstich","year":"1998"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r89","unstructured":"See SRW-Erlangen to SRW-Berlin dated 24 June1943, SMAZ, E-Lab, E3."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r23","unstructured":"Archivio Ministerio dell\u2019Industria del Commercio e dell\u2019Artigiabato, Ufficio Italiano Brevetti e Marchi, serie Invenzioni: \u2018Apparecchio per applicazioni elettriche\u2019\/Numero fascicolo, 369\u2013762."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r16","unstructured":"Cerletti, op. cit. (note 13), 92."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r5.1","unstructured":"63. Hans-Walter Schmuhl and Volker Roelcke (eds), 'Heroische Therapien': Die deutsche Psychiatrie im internationalen Vergleich 1918-1945 (G??ttingen: Wallenstein, 2013), 10"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r5.2","unstructured":"64. Angelika Ebbinghaus, 'Kostensenkung, Aktive Therapie und Vernichtung: Konsequenzen f??r das Antstaltswesen', in Angelika Ebbinghaus, Heidrun Kaupen-Haas and Karl Heinz Roth (eds), Heilen und Vernichten im Mustergau Hamburg, Bev??lkerungs- und Gesundheitspolitik im Dritten Reich (Hamburg: Konkret Literatur, 1984), 136-46"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r5.3","unstructured":"65. Hans-Ludwig Siemen, 'Psychiatrie im Nationalsozialismus', in Michael von Cranach (ed.), Psychiatrie im Nationalsozialismus: Die bayerischen Heil- und Pflegeanstalten zwischen 1933 und 1945 (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1999)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r5.4","unstructured":"66. G??tz Aly, 'Forschen an Opfern', in G??tz Aly (ed.), Aktion T4 1939-1945: Die 'Euthanasie'-Zentrale in der Tiergartenstrasse 4 (Berlin: Hentrich, 1987), 153-60: 159"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r5.5","unstructured":"67. Michael Hubenstorf, 'Tote und\/oder lebendige Wissenschaft: Die intellektuellen Netzwerke der NS-Patientenmordaktion in ??sterreich', in Eberhard Gabriel and Wolfgang Neugebauer (eds), Zur Geschichte der NS-Euthanasie in Wien, Teil 2: Von der Zwangssterilisation zur Ermordung (Vienna: B??hlau, 2002), 237-420"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r69","unstructured":"Ibid., p. 9."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00115-015-4301-1"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christel Roggenbau, \u2018\u00dcber die neue Behandlungsmethode der Schizophrenie nach Sakel\u2019, Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, 65, 33 (1939), 1297\u20139.","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0028-1123120"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r81","unstructured":"See Linden\u2019s statement on the unblocking of insulin (as far as available) for psychiatric shock therapy, dated 31 January 1944, ABezObb (Archive Bezirk Oberbayern) 609."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r84","unstructured":"Krumpolt, op. cit. (note 11), 63."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r48","unstructured":"BArch R 96 I-18: \u2018Vorschlag zur Gr\u00fcndung einer Forschungsanstalt f\u00fcr aktive Therapie der Nerven- und Geisteskrankheiten\u2019 by Wolfgang Holzer and letter from Paul Nitsche to Wolfgang Holzer dated 21 September 1944."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r100","unstructured":"E[rnst-]A[dolf] Schmorl, \u2018Beobachtungen \u00fcber die Einwirkung der Cardiazol-Krampfbehandlung\u2019, Allgemeine Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Psychiatrie, 108 (1938), 328\u201342."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r86","unstructured":"Van den Bussche, op. cit. (note 11), 156."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r43","volume-title":"Systematische Arbeits- und Besch\u00e4ftigungstherapie","author":"Buchner","year":"1937"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r104","unstructured":"See Meggendorfer to Nitsche, 5 January 1943, National Archives at College Park, RG 549, Records of US Army Europe, Judge Advocate Division, War Crimes Branch, Records relating to Medical Experiments, Entry-Number AI 2217, Box 3, page 125157f."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r2","first-page":"81","article-title":"Elektroshocktherapie der Schizophrenie","volume":"32","author":"Yasukoti G","year":"1939","journal-title":"Fukuoka Act Med"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r74.1","unstructured":"77. G??tz Aly, 'Der saubere und der schmutzige Fortschritt', in Beitr??ge zur nationalsozialistischen Gesundheits- und Sozialpolitik (Berlin: Rotbuch, 1985), 9-78: 50"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r74.2","unstructured":"78. Matthias Hamann, 'Schockverfahren im Nationalsozialismus: Ein Arbeitsbericht', Manuskript der Herbsttagung des Arbeitskreises zur Erforschung der Geschichte der 'Euthanasie' und Zwangssterilisation vom 27-29 Oktober in Grafeneck und M??nsingen, 1995, 65-71"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r74.3","unstructured":"79. Gerrit Hohendorf, 'Die \"Schocktherapieverfahren\" und die Organisationszentrale der nationalsozialistischen \"Euthanasie\" in der Berliner Tiergartenstra??e 4, 1939-1945', in Schmuhl and Roelcke, op. cit. (note 5): 287-307: 305."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r111","unstructured":"Drohocki, op. cit. (note 105), 165."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r75","unstructured":"Robert Poitrot, Rapport sur la destin\u00e9e de l\u2019Assistance Psychiatrique en Allemagne du Sud-Ouest pendant le R\u00e9gime National-Socialiste (Imprimerie Nationale: T\u00fcbingen, 1945), author\u2019s translation. In Zwiefalten, for example, and according to the annual reports, the apparatus arrived in 1946. The authors thank Bernd Reichelt for drawing their attention to this."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r95","unstructured":"Department for technical development to SRW-Berlin dated 30 October 1942, SMAZ, E-Lab, E3."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r1","unstructured":"Selzer, \u2018Cerletti e Bini: L\u2019elettroshock\u2019, Zentralblatt f\u00fcr die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, Referateteil, 93 (1939), 486."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r59","unstructured":"P\u00e4tzold to SRW-Berlin dated 25 June 1941, SMAZ, E-Lab, E2."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r53","unstructured":"Anonymus, \u2018Kurze Mitteilungen: Insulinverwendung in den Universit\u00e4ts-Nervenkliniken\u2019, Allgemeine Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Psychiatrie und ihre Grenzgebiete, 121 (1942), 188."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r103.1","unstructured":"86. P??tzold to Schmieder dated 25 May 1943"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r103.2","unstructured":"87. P??tzold to Schmieder dated 18 October 1944, SMAZ, E-Lab, E3."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r121","unstructured":"BArch R 96 I 18: Letter by Nitsche to Brandt dated 24 August 1944."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r18","unstructured":"See \u2018the hogs were clamped at the temples with big metallic tongs which were hooked up to an electric current (125 volts). As soon as the hogs were clamped by the tongs, they fell unconscious, stiffened, then after a few seconds they were shaken by convulsions in the same way as our experimental dogs\u2019, Cerletti, op. cit. (note 13), 92."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02869420"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r36","unstructured":"Matthias Hamann-Roth, Die Einf\u00fchrung der Insulinschocktherapie im Deutschen Reich 1935 bis 1937: Studien zur Geschichte der Medizin im Nationalsozialismus Band 2 (Wetzlar: GWAB, 2000); Rzesnitzek, \u2018Schocktherapien\u2019, op. cit. (note 11)."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r107","unstructured":"Drohocki, op. cit. (note 105), 162."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r65","first-page":"100","article-title":"Die technische Durchf\u00fchrung der Elektrokrampfbehandlung mit dem Konvulsator von Siemens","volume":"45","author":"Stolze","year":"1943","journal-title":"Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Wochenschrift"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r93","unstructured":"P\u00e4tzold to branch office Mannheim dated 4 September 1942, SMAZ, E-Lab, E3."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r77","unstructured":"SRW\u2019s statistics on the delivery of medical technology prove that about 230 Konvulsatoren had been delivered by January 1944 (P\u00e4tzold to SRW-Berlin dated 7 January 1944, SMAZ, E-Lab, electroshock from 1942) and more than another 86 Konvulsatoren during 1944 (X-ray and electromedical products, undated statistic for 1944 that lists desired value and built value, SMA 294). Because of the war, the delivery must have concerned the German Reich and occupied territories."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r118","unstructured":"BArch R 96 I-18, Letter from Gelny to Nitsche dated 7 February 1944. Henry Friedlander, The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution. (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 160."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r114","unstructured":"See Drohocki, op. cit. (note 105), 164\u20136; Dirks, op. cit. (note 106), 140\u20131."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r17","unstructured":"See further: Lara Rzesnitzek and Sascha Lang, \u2018A Material History of Electroshock Therapy: \u201cElectroshock\u201d Technology in Europe until 1945\u2019, NTM Journal of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine24, (2016), 251\u201377."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r67","unstructured":"See production statistics, Siemens MedArchives (SMA) 289."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r105","unstructured":"Zenon Drohocki, byly wiezien obozu koncentracyjnego Oswiecim-Brzezinka-Monowice nr 169779, \u2018Wstrzasy elektryczne w rewirze monowickim\u2019 [prisoner of the concentration camp Oswiecim-Brzezinka-Monowice number169779, \u2018Electroshocks in the Area of Monowitz\u2019], Przeglad Lekarski, 32 (1975), 162\u20136: 162\u20134 (for the translation of the article the authors thank Cornelius Borck\/Artur Zipf; see also Borck, op. cit. (note 15), 257-62."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-68435-7"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r28","unstructured":"Lucio Bini, \u2018Der durch elektrischen Strom erzeugte Krampfanfall\u2019, in Knud Winther and Knud H. Krabbe (eds), III Congr\u00e8s Neurologique International, Copenhague 21\u201325 Ao\u00fbt 1939, Comptes Rendus des S\u00e9ances (Copenhagen: Einar Munksgaard, 1939), 706\u20138; Ugo Cerletti and Lucio Bini, \u2018Der Elektroschock in der Neurologie\u2019, in op. cit. (note 28), 709."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r98","unstructured":"Fritz Schmieder, \u2018Zur H\u00e4ufigkeit und Bedeutung der Wirbels\u00e4ulensch\u00e4digungen bei den Krampf- und Schockverfahren\u2019, Allgemeine Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Psychiatrie, 121 (1943), 141\u2013180."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r60.1","unstructured":"101. 'Denkschrift \"Gedanken und Anregungen betr. die k??nftige Entwicklung der Psychiatrie\" (1943) according to the agreement between professor R??din\/Munich, Professor de Crinis\/Berlin, Professor Schneider\/Heidelberg, Professor Heinze\/G??rden, Prof. Nische\/Berlin', BArch R 96 I-9, printed in: Franz-Werner Kersting and Hans-Walter Schmuhl"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r60.2","unstructured":"102. (eds), Quellen zur Geschichte der Anstaltspsychiatrie in Westfalen, Bd. 2, 1914-1955 (Paderborn: Sch??ningh, 2004), 619-25."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/YCT.0b013e3181aa84ae"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r52.1","unstructured":"103. Friedrich Karl Kaul, Nazimordaktion T4: Ein Bericht ??ber die erste industriem????ig durchgef??hrte Mordaktion des Naziregimes (Berlin: Volk und Gesundheit, 1973)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r52.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"104. B. B??hm, 'Paul Nitsche: Reformpsychiater und Hauptakteur der NS-\"Euthanasie\"??', Nervenarzt, 83 (2012), 293-302.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00115-011-3389-1"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r92.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"105. Gerrit Hohendorf and Maike Rotzoll, 'Medical research and National Socialist euthanasia: Carl Schneider and the Heidelberg research children from 1942 until 1945', in Sheldon Rubenfeld and Susan Benedict (eds), Human Subjects Research after the Holocaust (Cham, Switzerland: Springer International, 2004), 127-38.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-05702-6_10"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r92.2","unstructured":"106. BArch R 96 I-4; Gerrit Hohendorf and Maike Rotzoll, 'Medical research and National Socialist euthanasia: Carl Schneider and the Heidelberg research children from 1942 until 1945', in Sheldon Rubenfeld and Susan Benedict"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r92.3","unstructured":"107. (eds), Human Subjects Research after the Holocaust (Cham, Switzerland: Springer International, 2004), 127-38."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r96","unstructured":"BArch R 96 I-4, final report by Schneider of 24 January 1944."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r15","unstructured":"Szasz, op. cit. (note 6); Ebbinghaus, op. cit. (note 5), 142; Cornelius Borck, Hirnstr\u00f6me (G\u00f6ttingen: Wallstein, 2005), 253; compare also: Lothar Kalinowsky, \u2018The Discoveries of Somatic Treatments in Psychiatry: Facts and Myths\u2019, Comprehensive Psychiatry, 21, (1980), 428\u201335."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r73","unstructured":"Isabelle von Bueltzingsloewen, L\u2019H\u00e9catombe des fous: La Famine dans les h\u00f4pitaux psychiatriques fran\u00e7ais sous l\u2019Occupation (Paris: Aubier, 2007)."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0086626"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r19","first-page":"40","article-title":"An Eyewitness Account of the Discovery of Electroshock","volume":"4","author":"Accornero","year":"1988","journal-title":"Convulsive Therapy"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r12.1","unstructured":"111. See Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes and Trevor J. Pinch (eds), The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r12.2","unstructured":"112. Bruno Latour, Pandora's Hope: Essays on the Reality of Science Studies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999)."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r20","unstructured":"David Impastato, \u2018The Story of the First Electroshock Treatment\u2019, American Journal of Psychiatry, 116 (1960), 1113\u20134; Accornero, op. cit. (note 19), Richard Abrams, \u2018Interview with Lothar Kalinowsky, M.D.\u2019, Convulsive Therapy, 4 (1988), 24\u201339: 30; Shorter and Healy, op. cit. (note 3), 37\u201343."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00fcller, op. cit. (note 24), 246; the guestbook of the mental hospital M\u00fcnsingen documents Kalinowsky\u2019s visit on 6 May 1938; in the Berne archives estate of Max M\u00fcller, there is the letter by Lothar B. Kalinowsky to Max M\u00fcller dated 19 March 1939\u2013the authors thank Urs Germann for this suggestion; see further: Lara Rzesnitzek, \u2018Lothar B. Kalinowsky und die Einf\u00fchrung der Elektrokrampftherapie in Europa, op. cit. (note 11); Lara Rzesnitzek, \u2018\u00a0\u201cA Berlin Psychiatrist with an American Passport\u201d: Lothar Kalinowsky, Electroconvulsive Therapy and International Exchange in the Mid-Twentieth Century\u2019, History of Psychiatry, 26 (2015), 433\u201351.","DOI":"10.1177\/0957154X15603335"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r32","unstructured":"P\u00e4tzold completed his post-doctoral qualification (Habilitation) in 1940 with this subject. He had been employed as a developmental engineer since 1930, and between 1943 and 1945 was head of the entire technical development of SRW."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r33.1","unstructured":"116. Memo P??tzold dated 6 December 1939"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r33.2","unstructured":"117. patent department SRW-Erlangen to Bini, 9 December 1939, Siemens MedArchives intermediate archive (SMAZ), Electric-Medical Laboratory (E-Lab), technical development, direct current and low frequency applications (electroshock) [unsigned, abbreviated E1 in the following]."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r41","unstructured":"W[olfgang] Holzer, A[nna] Klaue, H[erbert] Reisner, \u2018Erfahrungen mit der Elektroschocktherapie\u2019, Allgemeine Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Psychiatrie, 120 (1942), 119\u201345: 121."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r38","unstructured":"Johannes P\u00e4tzold, \u2018Das Ger\u00e4t zur Elektrokrampferzeugung und seine physikalischen Grundlagen\u2019, Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, 42 (1940), 1157\u20131160; see further on the patent issues: Rzesnitzek and Lang, op. cit. (note 17), 260\u20132."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r63","unstructured":"See Faulstich, op. cit. (note 51)."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r70","unstructured":"BArch R 96 I-12, p. 15."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r72.1","unstructured":"122. Marcel Lapipe and Jean Rondepierre, 'Essais d'un appareil fran??ais pour l'??lectro-choc', Annales M??dico-Psychologiques, 99 (1941), 87-95: 94"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r72.2","unstructured":"123. Bueltzingsloewen, op. cit. (note 11) even claims that it was the Germans who first used electroshock therapy on French territory: in the summer of 1940 in the neuropsychiatric department, the military had started treating their soldiers at Sainte Anne. Concrete clues cannot be found either for this effort or for the assumption that a Konvulsator had been given beforehand to the hospital or the responsible medical unit. Moreover, the psychiatrist responsible for this unit, Reinhard Formanek, coming from the Munich Research Institute for Psychiatry, had hardly any experience with this method as the Institute, if of one believes the medical files of its clinical unit, did not attempt electroshock therapy in 1939 or 1940."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r14","unstructured":"For a quick overview see Berrios, op cit. (note 10)."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r37.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"125. Matthias M. Weber, 'Ernst R??din, 1874-1952: A German Psychiatrist and Geneticist', American Journal of Medical Genetics, 67 (1996), 323-31","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-8628(19960726)67:4<323::AID-AJMG2>3.0.CO;2-N"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r37.2","unstructured":"126. Volker Roelcke, 'Ernst R??din: Renomierter Wissenschaftler, radikaler Rassenhygieniker', Nervenarzt, 83 (2012), 303-310. Jay Joseph and Norbert A. Wetzel, 'Ernst R??din: Hitler's Racial Hygiene Mastermind', Journal of the History of Biology, 46 (2013), 1-30"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001010_r37.3","unstructured":"127. see also: Robert Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine Under the Nazis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988)."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r82","unstructured":"Faulstich, op. cit. (note 51), 653."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r26","unstructured":"Oscar Luis Forel, \u2018L\u2019\u00c9lectrochoc en psychiatrie\u2019, Annales M\u00e9dico-PsychologiquesXV s\u00e9rie, 99 ann\u00e9e (1941), 32\u201340."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r27","unstructured":"M\u00fcller, op. cit. (note 24), 247."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r29","unstructured":"See further: Rzesnitzek and Lang, op. cit. (note 17), 259\u201360."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r21","unstructured":"Abrams, op. cit. (note 20), 30."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r68","unstructured":"BArch R 96 I-12, p. 12."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01815826"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"See Susan Lederer, Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).","DOI":"10.1080\/03612759.1995.9949143"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r85","unstructured":"Eglfing-Haar is not the rule but rather the exception, and therefore offers only limited utility in portraying the \u2018the history of everyday life\u2019 (Alltagsgeschichte) of a psychiatric hospital or asylum until the end of National Socialism, compare: Bernhard Richarz, Heilen, Pflegen, T\u00f6ten: Zur Alltagsgeschichte einer Heil- und Pflegeanstalt bis zum Ende des Nationalsozialismus (G\u00f6ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1987)."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r124","unstructured":"Expert opinion by Dr Wolfgang Holzer, \u2018personally submitted on 23 August 1946\u2019 Court A1-VgVr-criminal files: Vg 8eVr681\/1955, in it: Vg 8a Vr 455\/46), see F\u00fcrstler and Malina, op. cit. (note 119); see further: Rzesnitzek and Lang op. cit. (note 17), 270."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r44","unstructured":"Compilation of protective rights \u2018concerning electrical animal anaesthesia and to which we are entitled\u2019, 1 November 1938, SMAZ, E-Lab, technical development, direct current and low frequency use (anaesthesia apparatuses for big animals, apparatuses for the anaesthesia of fish); see further: Rzesnitzek and Lang, op. cit. (note 17), 266\u20138."},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r3","volume-title":"Shock Therapy: A History of Electroconvulsive Treatment in Mental Illness","author":"Shorter","year":"2007"},{"key":"S0025727316001010_r8","first-page":"169","volume-title":"The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution","author":"Friedlander","year":"1995"}],"container-title":["Medical History"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0025727316001010","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,19]],"date-time":"2022-07-19T17:47:28Z","timestamp":1658252848000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0025727316001010\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,21]]},"references-count":156,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,1]]}},"alternative-id":["S0025727316001010"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/mdh.2016.101","relation":{},"ISSN":["0025-7273","2048-8343"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0025-7273","type":"print"},{"value":"2048-8343","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,21]]},"assertion":[{"value":"\u00a9 The Author(s) 2016. Published by Cambridge University Press.\u00a0","name":"license","label":"License","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}}]}}