{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,23]],"date-time":"2024-09-23T03:58:40Z","timestamp":1727063920083},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,21]],"date-time":"2016-12-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1482278400000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.cambridge.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Med. Hist."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In the first decades of the twentieth century, a group of doctors under the banner of the social hygiene movement set out on what seemed an improbable mission: to convince American men that they did not need sex. This was in part a response to venereal disease. Persuading young men to adopt the standard of sexual discipline demanded of women was the key to preserving the health of the nation from the ravages of syphilis and gonorrhoea. But their campaign ran up against the doctrine of male sexual necessity, a doctrine well established in medical thought and an article of faith for many patients. Initially, social hygienists succeeded in rallying much of the medical community. But this success was followed by a series of setbacks. Significant dissent remained within the profession. Even more alarmingly, behavioural studies proved that many men simply were not listening. The attempt to repudiate the doctrine of male sexual necessity showed the ambition of Progressive-era doctors, but also their powerlessness in the face of entrenched beliefs about the linkage in men between sex, health and success.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/mdh.2016.102","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,21]],"date-time":"2016-12-21T09:53:47Z","timestamp":1482314027000},"page":"89-106","update-policy":"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1017\/policypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["\u2018Apostles of Continence\u2019: Doctors and the Doctrine of Sexual Necessity in Progressive-Era America"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"61","author":[{"given":"Timothy","family":"Verhoeven","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0025727316001022_r37","unstructured":"Winfield Scott Hall, Youth and Its Problems: The Sex Life of a Man (Philadelphia: John C Winston, 1919), 116."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r49","unstructured":"Ibid.,643."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r21.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"3. Ellen Bayuk Rosenman, 'Body Doubles: The Spermatorrhea Panic', Journal of the History of Sexuality12, 3 (2003), 365-99","DOI":"10.1353\/sex.2004.0013"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r21.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"4. Robert Darby, 'Pathologizing Male Sexuality: Lallemand, Spermatorrhea, and the Rise of Circumcision', Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 60, 3 (2005), 283-319","DOI":"10.1093\/jhmas\/jri042"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r21.3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"5. Elizabeth Stephens, 'Pathologizing Leaky Male Bodies: Spermatorrhea in Nineteenth-Century British Medicine and Popular Anatomical Museums', Journal of the History of Sexuality 17, 3 (2008), 421-38.","DOI":"10.1353\/sex.0.0023"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r67","unstructured":"When You Go Home \u2013 Take This Book With You (US Public Health Service, Division of Venereal Diseases), 13. For an example of a poster with the same message, see the following digital collection at the Library of Congress, http:\/\/www.loc.gov\/pictures\/collection\/wwipos\/item\/00652170\/."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r54","unstructured":"James B. Reynolds to Abraham Flexner, May 10, 1915, Bureau of Social Research Records, Series 3, subseries\u00a02, Folder 184 \u2018Lexington Investigation, 1915\u2019."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u2018All-America Conference on Venereal Diseases: Report on the Proceedings and the Resolutions of the General Conference Committee\u2019, Public Health Reports36, 28 (1921), 1628\u201330.","DOI":"10.2307\/4576055"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r47","first-page":"647","article-title":"Freud\u2019s Theory of Compulsion Neurosis","volume":"17","author":"Brill","year":"1911","journal-title":"American Medicine"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r27","unstructured":"G. Stanley Hall, Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education, vol. 2 (New York: D. Appleton, 1904), 140. For F\u00e9r\u00e9, see Charles F\u00e9r\u00e9, The Evolution and Dissolution of the Sexual Instinct (Paris: Charles Carrington, 1904), 8. In general, however, F\u00e9r\u00e9 argued that continence was harmless."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r8","unstructured":"William Osler, \u2018History of medicine\u2019, in Frederick Converse Beach (ed.), The Americana: A Universal Reference Library, vol. 13 (1903), no page number."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r62","unstructured":"\u2018Extracts from Memorandum of Conference to Consider Venereal Situation, February 27, 1919\u2019, RG120, NM92 Entry 2065, Box 5170, National Archives (College Park)."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r61","unstructured":"\u2018The Social Basis of the Campaign Against Venereal Diseases in the AEF\u2019, Box 7, Folder 17, Edward Loughborough Keyes Jr Papers, Georgetown University Special Collections Research Center (Washington DC)."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r36","unstructured":"Exner, op. cit., (note 26), 8."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r35","unstructured":"Exner, op. cit., (note 26), 18."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r17","unstructured":"John Laws Milton, On the Pathology and Treatment of Gonorrhoea and Spermatorrhoea (New York: William Wood and Company, 1887), 356."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r23","first-page":"74","article-title":"The Sexual Necessity","volume":"87","author":"Keyes","year":"1905","journal-title":"Medical News"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r57","unstructured":"Henry V. Barker to James Bronson Reynolds, February 18, 1916, Bureau of Social Research Records, Series\u00a03, subseries 2, Folder 184 \u2018Lexington Investigation, 1915\u2019."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r34","unstructured":"Edward L. Keyes Jr., \u2018The Sexual Necessity\u2019, Transactions of the American Society for Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis, 1 (1906), 43\u201344."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r50","first-page":"37","volume-title":"Sex Problems Solved","author":"Howard","year":"1915"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r42","unstructured":"As the sociologist Charles A. Ellwood noted, \u201cmen in the professions do not think of marriage nowadays until thirty.\u201d Charles A. Ellwood, Sociology and Modern Social Problems (New York: American Book Company, 1919), 162."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r40","unstructured":"Exner, op. cit., (note 26), 14, 6."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r63","unstructured":"\u2018Weekly report Feb 8 \u2013 Feb 16 1919\u2019, RG120, NM92 Entry 2065, Box 5170, National Archives (College Park)."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r59","unstructured":"Hall, op. cit., (note 37), 24\u20135."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r32","volume-title":"The Sexual Necessity","author":"Howell","year":"1913"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r26","first-page":"13","volume-title":"The Physician\u2019s Answer: Medical Authority and Prevailing Misconceptions about Sex","author":"Exner","year":"1913"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r31","unstructured":"\u2018Health and the Hygiene of Sex\u2019, op cit. (note 7), 6."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r5","first-page":"30","article-title":"The Society of Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis: Its Objects and Aims","volume":"1","author":"Morrow","year":"1906","journal-title":"Transactions of the American Society for Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r44","unstructured":"Sigmund Freud, \u2018Modern Sexual Morality and Modern Nervousness\u2019, American Journal of Urology and Sexology, 11, 10 (October 1915), 391\u2013405."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r70","unstructured":"Ibid.,61."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r30","unstructured":"Moritz Nussbaum, \u2018Innere Sekretion und Nerveneinfluss\u2019, in Fr. Merkel and R. Bonnet (eds), Anatomische Hefte Referate und Beitr\u00e4ge zur Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte (Wiesbaden: J.F. Bergmann, 1905), 39\u201389. The state of this research was set out to an American audience by Francis H. A. Marshall in his The Physiology of Reproduction (New York: Longmans, Green, 1910), 303\u2013314."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Health and the Hygiene of Sex for College Students, Educational Pamphlet No. 6 (New York: American Society of Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis, 1911), 12.","DOI":"10.1097\/00000446-191110000-00005"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r66","unstructured":"Walker, op. cit., (note 64), 45."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r3.1","unstructured":"28. On sex education in this era, see Jeffrey P. Moran, Teaching Sex: The Shaping of Adolescence in the 20th Century (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r3.2","unstructured":"29. Robin E. Jensen, Dirty Words: The Rhetoric of Public Sex Education, 1870-1924 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010)."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r64","first-page":"101","volume-title":"Venereal Disease in the American Expeditionary Forces","author":"Walker","year":"1922"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r48","first-page":"640","article-title":"Freud\u2019s \u2018Apprehension Neurosis\u2019","volume":"17","author":"Tannenbaum","year":"1911","journal-title":"American Medicine"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r41","unstructured":"William J. White and Edward Martin, Genito-Urinary Surgery and Venereal Diseases (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1910), 810\u201311."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r24","first-page":"470","article-title":"The Social Aspect of Gonococcal Infection of the Innocent","volume":"11","author":"Newman Dorland","year":"1910","journal-title":"Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r33","unstructured":"Exner, op. cit., (note 26), 18."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r68","unstructured":"Ibid.,6."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r46","unstructured":"Ibid.,218. Nathan G. Hale, Freud and the Americans: The Beginnings of Psychoanalysis in the United States, 1876\u20131917 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 11\u201313."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880\u20131917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226041490.001.0001"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r11","unstructured":"Max Huhner, A Practical Treatise on Disorders of the Sexual Function in the Male and Female (Philadelphia: F.A. Davis, 1916), 260."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r10","unstructured":"Nancy K. Bristow, Making Men Moral: Social Engineering During the Great War (New York : New York University Press, 1996); Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 52\u2013121; Christopher Capozzola, Uncle Sam Wants You: World War I and the Making of the Modern American Citizen (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 132\u20136."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r1","first-page":"25","volume-title":"Social Diseases and Marriage: Social Prophylaxis","author":"Morrow","year":"1904"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Letter dated November 22, 1915, Bureau of Social Research Records, Series 3, subseries\u00a02, Folder 184 \u2018Lexington Investigation, 1915\u2019.","DOI":"10.1159\/000245891"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r9.1","unstructured":"38. Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 26-31"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r9.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"39. Bryan Strong, 'Ideas of the Early Sex Education Movement in America, 1890-1920', History of Education Quarterly 12, 2 (1972), 129-61","DOI":"10.2307\/366974"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r9.3","unstructured":"40. Mark Thomas Connelly, The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), 77-8. Other references to the doctrine of sexual necessity can be found in Simmons, op. cit. (note 4), 36"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r9.4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"41. John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York: Harper and Row, 1989), 206.","DOI":"10.2307\/25143445"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7560\/JHS24102"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sigmund Freud, \u2018The Origin and Development of Psychoanalysis: Fifth Lecture\u2019, American Journal of Psychology21 (1910), 217.","DOI":"10.2307\/1413001"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r43","unstructured":"William J. Robinson, Sex Knowledge for Men: Including a Program for Sex Education of the Boy (New York: Critic and Guide company, 1916), 79. Assessing Robinson\u2019s campaigns for contraception, Linda Gordon argues that \u2018Probably no doctor in America has been as influential in winning support for birth control and in defining its future development. Linda Gordon, The Moral Property of Women: A History of Birth Control Politics in America (Urbana: University of Illinois, 2002), 115."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r38","unstructured":"James Peter Warbasse, Medical Sociology: A Series of Observations Touching upon the Sociology of Health and the Relations of Medicine to Society (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1909), 116."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r13","unstructured":"John Parascandola, A History of Syphilis in America (Westport: Praeger, 2008), 22."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r71","unstructured":"John B. Watson and Karl S. Lashley, \u2018A Consensus of Medical Opinion Upon Questions Relating to Sex Education and Venereal Disease Campaigns\u2019, Mental Hygiene4, 4 (1920), 794\u20138."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r53","unstructured":"\u2018A Brief Review of the Facts Leading up to Opposition Against E.L. Hall, Secretary of the State University YMCA\u2019, Bureau of Social Research Records, Series 3, subseries 2, Folder 184 \u2018Lexington Investigation, 1915\u2019."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r19","unstructured":"Joseph W. Howe, Excessive Venery, Masturbation and Continence: The Etiology, Pathology and Treatment of the Diseases Resulting from Venereal Excesses, Masturbation and Continence (New York: E.B. Treat, 1907), 184."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r18","unstructured":"Ibid.,357."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r25","unstructured":"Keyes, op. cit. (note 23), 74."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r72","unstructured":"Ibid.,800\u20134."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r15.1","unstructured":"52. John F. Kasson, Houdini, Tarzan, and the Perfect Man: The White Male Body and the Challenge of Modernity in America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r15.2","unstructured":"53. Clifford Putney, Muscular Christianity: Manhood and Sports in Protestant America, 1880-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r15.3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"54. John Pettegrew, Brutes in Suits: Male Sensibility in America, 1890-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007)","DOI":"10.1353\/book.3293"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r15.4","unstructured":"55. E. Anthony Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York: Basic Books, 1993)."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r69","first-page":"23","volume-title":"A Psychological Study of Motion Pictures in Relation to Venereal Disease Campaigns","author":"Lashley","year":"1922"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r6","unstructured":"Ibid., 30."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r28","unstructured":"Charles \u00c9douard Brown-S\u00e9quard, \u2018Exp\u00e9rience d\u00e9montrant la puissance dynamog\u00e9nique chez l\u2019homme d\u2019un liquide extrait de testicules d\u2019animaux\u2019, Archives de Physiologie Normale et Pathologique, 5, 1 (1889), 651\u201358. See Michael J. Aminoff, Brown-Sequard: An Improbable Genius Who Transformed Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010)."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r29","unstructured":"Hikmet (de Constantinople) and F\u00e9lix Regnault, \u2018Les Eunuques de Constantinople\u2019, Bulletins et M\u00e9moires de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d\u2019Anthropologie de Paris, 5, 2 (1901), 234\u201340."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r2","first-page":"1075","article-title":"A Plea for the Organization of a \u201cSociety of Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis\u201d","volume":"84","author":"Morrow","year":"1904","journal-title":"Medical News"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r12.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"59. John C. Burnham, 'The Progressive Era Revolution in American Attitudes Towards Sex', Journal of American History59, 4 (1973), 885-908","DOI":"10.2307\/1918367"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r12.2","unstructured":"60. David J. Pivar, Purity and Hygiene: Women, Prostitution, and the 'American Plan', 1900-30 (Westport: Greenwood, 2002), 3."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prince A. Morrow, \u2018Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis\u2019, Boston Medical and Surgical Journal154, 24 (1906), 676.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM190606141542403"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r55","unstructured":"Edward L. Hall to James B. Reynolds, May 6, 1915, Bureau of Social Research Records, Series 3, subseries 2, Folder 184 \u2018Lexington Investigation, 1915\u2019."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r65","first-page":"1825","article-title":"Factors Making for a Low Venereal Record in the American Expeditionary Forces","volume":"73, 24","author":"Ashburn","year":"1919","journal-title":"Journal of the American Medical Association"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r20","unstructured":"Ibid.,200."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u2018Official Minutes\u2019, Journal of the American Medical Association, 46 (1906), 1880.","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1906.02510280050013"},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r51","unstructured":"Hall, op. cit., (note 37), 131\u20132."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r60","unstructured":"\u2018Report to Major William S Snow, February 18, 1918\u2019, Box 7, Folder 19, Edward Loughborough Keyes Jr Papers, Georgetown University Special Collections Research Center (Washington DC)."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r58","unstructured":"For an account of the army\u2019s measures by Young, see Hugh Hampton Young, \u2018Preventive Medicine As Applied to Venereal and Skin Diseases\u2019, Transactions of the Section on Genito-Urinary Diseases of the American Medical Association (1919): 202\u2013261."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r4.1","unstructured":"68. On reformers opposed to the sexual double-standard, see Christina Simmons, Making Marriage Modern: Women's Sexuality from the Progressive Era to World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 33"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727316001022_r4.2","unstructured":"69. James H. Adams, Urban Reform and Sexual Vice in Progressive-Era Philadelphia: The Faithful and the Fallen (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2015), 18-19."},{"key":"S0025727316001022_r52","volume-title":"Problems and Principles of Sex Education: A Study of 948 College Men","author":"Exner","year":"1915"}],"container-title":["Medical History"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0025727316001022","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,21]],"date-time":"2023-08-21T11:18:42Z","timestamp":1692616722000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0025727316001022\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,21]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,1]]}},"alternative-id":["S0025727316001022"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/mdh.2016.102","relation":{},"ISSN":["0025-7273","2048-8343"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0025-7273","type":"print"},{"value":"2048-8343","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,12,21]]},"assertion":[{"value":"\u00a9 The Author 2016. 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