{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T02:16:21Z","timestamp":1790820981861,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,12]],"date-time":"2017-06-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1497225600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.cambridge.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Med. Hist."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>A pressing question during the first half-decade of the third plague pandemic (1894\u20139) was what was a \u2018suitable soil\u2019 for the disease. The question related to plague\u2019s perceived ability to disappear from a given city only to reappear at some future point; a phenomenon that became central to scientific investigations of the disease. However, rather than this simply having a metaphorical meaning, the debate around plague\u2019s \u2018suitable soil\u2019 actually concerned the material reality of the soil itself. The prevalence of plague in the working-class neighbourhood of Taipingshan during the first major outbreak of the pandemic, in 1894 in Hong Kong, led to an extensive debate regarding the ability of the soil to harbour and even spread the disease. Involving experiments, which were seen as able to procure evidence for or against the demolition or even torching of the area, scientific and administrative concerns over the soil rendered it an unstable yet highly productive epistemic thing. The spread of plague to India further fuelled concerns over the ability of the soil to act as the medium of the disease\u2019s so-called true recrudescence. Besides high-profile scientific debates, hands-on experiments on purifying the soil of infected houses by means of highly intrusive methods allowed scientists and administrators to act upon and further solidify plague\u2019s supposed invisibility in the urban terrain. Rather than being a short-lived, moribund object of epidemiological concern, this paper will demonstrate that the soil played a crucial role in the development of plague as a scientifically knowable and actionable category for modern medicine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/mdh.2017.32","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,12]],"date-time":"2017-06-12T09:37:04Z","timestamp":1497260224000},"page":"343-357","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/policypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["A \u2018Suitable Soil\u2019: Plague\u2019s Urban Breeding Grounds at the Dawn of the Third Pandemic"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"61","author":[{"given":"Christos","family":"Lynteris","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0025727317000321_r35","unstructured":"Chu, op. cit. (note.\u00a023)."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r69.1","unstructured":"2. House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, Session: 1900 [Cd.810]"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r69.2","unstructured":"3. Indian Plague Commission, 1898-9. Report of the Indian Plague Commission with appendices and summary. Vol.\u00a0V, 176."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r39","unstructured":"Ibid., 400."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r18.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"5. See in particular D. S. Barnes 'Cargo, \"Infection\", and the Logic of Quarantine in the Nineteenth Century', Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 88, 1 (Spring 2014), 75-101","DOI":"10.1353\/bhm.2014.0018"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r18.2","unstructured":"6. P.\u00a0Stallybrass and A.\u00a0White, 'The city: the sewer, the gaze and the contaminating touch', in J.\u00a0Farquhar and M.\u00a0Lock (eds), Beyond the Body Proper: Reading the Anthropology of Material Life (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 266-85"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r18.3","unstructured":"7. R.\u00a0el-Khoury, 'Polish and deodorize: paving the city in late eighteenth-century France', in J.\u00a0Drobnick (ed.) The Smell Culture Reader (Oxford: Berg, 2006), 18-28."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r42","unstructured":"Archives Institut Pasteur, Fonds: Yersin Alexandre, Cote: YER.5 \u2013 Lieu : A1\/13, my translation."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r65","unstructured":"Ibid, 89."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Franck Clemow , \u2018The Plague in Calcutta\u2019, The Lancet, 2, 3916 (17 September 1898), 738\u201342: 741.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)81785-2"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r27","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r11","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r30","unstructured":"Correspondence re Improvement of Tai-Ping Shan, op. cit. (note\u00a024)."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r23","first-page":"17","volume-title":"Imperial Contagions: Medicine, Hygiene and Cultures of Planning in Asia","author":"Chu","year":"2013"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r45","unstructured":"Correspondence re Improvement of Tai-Ping Shan, op. cit. (note\u00a024)."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anon., \u2018Plague in the Far East\u2019, British Medical Journal, 2, 1860 (22 August 1896), 460.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.1860.460"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r4.1","unstructured":"16. Recent studies suggest evidence of plague remaining alive and virulent in the soil (for up to 40 weeks, indicated in the case of Ayyadurai et\u00a0al.\u00a02008)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r4.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"17. S.\u00a0Ayyadurai, L.\u00a0Houhamdi, H.\u00a0Lepidi, C.\u00a0Nappez, D.\u00a0Raoult and M.\u00a0Drancourt, 'Long-Term Persistence of Virulent Yersinia pestisin Soil', Microbiology, 154 (2008), 2865-71","DOI":"10.1099\/mic.0.2007\/016154-0"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r4.3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"18. R.\u00a0J.\u00a0Eisen, J.\u00a0M.\u00a0Petersen, C.\u00a0L.\u00a0Higgins, D.\u00a0Wong, C.\u00a0E.\u00a0Levy, P.\u00a0S.\u00a0Mead, M.\u00a0E.\u00a0Schriefen, K.\u00a0S.\u00a0Griffith, K.\u00a0L.\u00a0Cage and C.\u00a0B.\u00a0Beard, 'Persistence of Yersinia pestis in Soil under Natural Conditions', Emerging Infectious Diseases, 14, 6 (June 2008), 941-3.","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1406.080029"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r58","unstructured":"Hans Blumenberg , Theorie der Unbegrifflichkeit [The Theory of Unconceptuality] (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 2007); Rheinberger, \u2018Difference Machines\u2019, op. cit. (note\u00a057)."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"In R. Peckham, \u2018Hong Kong Junk: Plague and the Economy of Chinese Things\u2019, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 90 (2016), 32\u201360: 44.","DOI":"10.1353\/bhm.2016.0011"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r5","unstructured":"H. H. Mollaret , \u2018Conservation exp\u00e9rimentale de la peste dans le sol\u2019, Bulletin de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de pathologie exotique, 56, 6 (November 1963), 1168\u201382."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r16","unstructured":"Barnes, op. cit. (note\u00a02); E.\u00a0Cockayne, Hubbub: Filth, Noise and Stench in England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007); M.\u00a0Bradley (ed.) Pollution and Propriety: Dirt and Hygiene in the Eternal City from Antiquity to Modernity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012). On the \u2018occult nature of Victorian dirt\u2019, see C.\u00a0Herbert, \u2018Rat Worship in Mayhew\u2019s London\u2019, Representations, 23 (Summer 1988), 1\u201324: 8."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"On the notion of difference in experimental systems see, ibid., and Hans-J\u00f6rg Rheinberger, \u2018Difference Machines: Time in Experimental Systems\u2019, Configurations,23, 2 (Spring 2015), 165\u201376.","DOI":"10.1353\/con.2015.0013"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r25","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r44","unstructured":"Archives Institut Pasteur, Fonds: Yersin Alexandre Cote: YER.5 \u2013 Lieu: A1\/13."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r47","unstructured":"Hong Kong Government GazetteGA 1895 no.\u00a0146, op. cit. (note\u00a014), 400."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r2","volume-title":"The Great Stink of Paris and the Nineteenth-Century Struggle against Filth and Germs","author":"Barnes","year":"2006"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r32","unstructured":"Older miasmatic theories of plague relied on \u2018the action of the heat in destroying plague\u2019 as a proof of the disease not being contagious; Ph.\u00a0Jenks, An Essay on the Analogy of the Asiatic and African Plague and the American Yellow (Philadelphia, PA: Hugh Maxwell, 1804), 14."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r19","unstructured":"Peckham, op. cit. (note\u00a017)."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hankin employed exactly the same term in his influential 1905 paper, \u2018On the Epidemiology of Plague\u2019, The Journal of Hygiene, 5, 1 (January 1905), 48\u201383. As Mollaret (op. cit. (note\u00a05)) has argued, Hankin\u2019s actual approach to the soil appears to be self-contradictory; though all his experiments in procuring a plague culture from the soil proved fruitless, he nonetheless claimed that the transfer of the bacterium from the rat\u2019s body into the soil might be necessary in order for it to retain its virulence across time.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022172400002357"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r59","unstructured":"James\u00a0A. Lowson , Report on the Epidemic of Plague [in Bombay] from 22 February to 16 July 1897. British Library: Asian and African Studies; IOR\/V\/27\/856\/13."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r14","volume-title":"La province Chinoise du Yunnan","author":"Rocher","year":"1879"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1515\/9781503616134","volume-title":"Bubonic Plague in Nineteenth-Century China","author":"Benedict","year":"1996"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r34","unstructured":"Correspondence re Improvement of Tai-Ping Shan, op. cit. (note\u00a024)."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J. Andrew Mendelsohn , \u2018The Microscopist of Modern Life\u2019, Osiris, 2nd ser., 18, Science and the City (2003), 150\u201370.","DOI":"10.1086\/649382"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r40","unstructured":"Correspondence re Improvement of Tai-Ping Shan, op. cit. (note\u00a024)."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r33.1","unstructured":"34. Hong Kong Government Gazette, GA 1895 no. 117"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r33.2","unstructured":"35. Report, Scheme for the Improvement of the Resumed Area in Taipingshan (incorporating Correspondence No. 132 by Francis\u00a0A. Cooper, Director of Public Works, 22 March 1895) (30 March 1895), 262-5: 264. Cooper retorted that it was sanitary measures and not the fire that eradicated plague in London. Even if fire were applied, Cooper reasoned, the heat would fail to penetrate the surface of the ground to a desirable effect."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r24","unstructured":"Correspondence re Improvement of Tai-Ping Shan, enclosed in Robinson to Ripon, 30 August 1894. Colonial Office. Original Correspondence: Hong Kong 1841\u20131951; Series 129\/263, CO\u00a017303."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r28","unstructured":"Ibid. \u2018Resumption\u2019 here referred to the repossession of the land and its re-development."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anon., \u2018The Plague in Hyderabad State: A Report by Lieutenant-Colonel Lawrie I.M.S.\u2019, The Lancet, 1, 3935 (28 January 1899), 249\u2013350: 250.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)63425-1"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r68","unstructured":"Correspondence re Improvement of Tai-Ping Shan, op. cit. (note\u00a024)."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r52","unstructured":"Yersin gives no explanation as to how this correction was reached; Hong Kong Government Gazette, GA 1895 no.\u00a0117; Report, Scheme for the Improvement of the Resumed Area in Taipingshan (incorporating Correspondence No. 132 by Francis\u00a0A. Cooper, Director of Public Works, 22 March 1895) (30 March 1895), 262\u20135."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r15","unstructured":"Enclosure \u2018Gazette June 29, 1894\u2019, in Robinson to Ripon 30 July 1894. Colonial Office. Original Correspondence: Hong Kong 1841\u20131951; Series\u00a0129\/263, CO\u00a013259."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r9.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"42. Shibasabur\u014d Kitasato, 'The Bacillus of Bubonic Plague', The Lancet, 144, 3704 (25 August 1894), 428-30","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)58670-5"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r9.2","unstructured":"43. Alexandre Yersin, 'La peste bubonique \u00e1 Hong Kong', Annales de l'Institut Pasteur, 8 (1894), 662-7."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r7","unstructured":"House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, Session: 1894 [C.7461] [C.7545]. Hong Kong. Correspondence Relative to the Outbreak of Bubonic Plague at Hong Kong."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r72.1","unstructured":"45. See in particular, House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, Session: 1900 [Cd.140], op. cit. (note\u00a070), 15,198"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r72.2","unstructured":"46. House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, Session: 1900 [Cd.141] Indian Plague Commission, 1898-9. Minutes of Evidence Taken by the Indian Plague Commission with appendices. Vol.\u00a0III, 17,775"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r72.3","unstructured":"47. Hong Kong Government Gazette GA 1895 no.\u00a0146, op. cit. (note\u00a014), 375. This notion would be further promoted by comparative research conducted by Kitasato's partner Dr\u00a0Aoyoma in Japanese-ruled Taiwan"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r72.4","unstructured":"48. House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, Session: 1900 [Cd.810], op. cit. (note\u00a069). It should be noted here that the eventual discrediting of the soil hypothesis relied on evidence that there was no difference in inguinal bubo prevalence between 'booted Australians' and 'the barefooted Indians of Bombay' - 'If the plague infection was derived from the soil the latter class of person ought to develop more groin buboes than the former'"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r72.5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"49. W.B.\u00a0Bannerman, 'The Spread of Plague in India', The Journal of Hygiene, 6, 2 (April 1906), 179-211: 209.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022172400002813"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r12.1","unstructured":"50. House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, Session: 1878-9 [C.\u00a02262], Plague. Papers Relating to the Modern History and Recent Progress of Levantine Plague"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r12.2","unstructured":"51. prepared from time to time by direction of the president of the Local Government Board, with other papers, 28. See also, C.\u00a0Zuber, 'Rapport sur une missione m\u00e9dicale en Russie: La peste du gouvernement d'Astrakhan', Recueil des travaux du Comit\u00e9 Consultatif d'hygi\u00e8ne publique de France et des actes officiels de l'administration sanitaire (Paris: A.\u00a0Lahure, 1880) vol.\u00a09, 87-167."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r70","unstructured":"House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, Session: 1900 [Cd.140] Indian Plague Commission, 1898\u20139. Minutes of Evidence Taken by the Indian Plague Commission with appendices. Vol.\u00a0II. Evidence taken from 11th January 1899 to 8th February 1899, 16,149; 1,947; 21,197; 21,537."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anon., \u2018The Plague\u2019, British Medical Journal2, 1982 (24 December 1898), 1906\u201307.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.1982.1906"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r71","unstructured":"House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, Session 1900 [Cd.139] Indian Plague Commission, 1898\u20139. Minutes of Evidence Taken by the Indian Plague Commission with appendices. Vol.\u00a0I. Evidence taken from 29th November 1898 to 5th January 1899, 6,898\u20136,900. The porosity of the soil was another factor considered, following Pettenkofer (Ibid: 8,311\u201325)."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r46","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r77","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1215\/9780822378266"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r74.1","unstructured":"57. House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, Session 1900 [Cd.139], op. cit. (note\u00a071), 1,097"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727317000321_r74.2","unstructured":"58. House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, Session: 1900 [Cd. 140], op. cit. (note\u00a070), 9,168."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r56","volume-title":"Toward a History of Epistemic Things: Synthesizing Proteins in the Test Tube","author":"Rheinberger","year":"1997"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r10","unstructured":"James A. Lowson , Handwritten Report, 16 May 1894, enclosed in Robinson to Ripon, 17 May 1894. Colonial Office. Original Correspondence: Hong Kong 1841\u20131951; Series\u00a0129\/263, CO\u00a010928."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"James Cantlie , \u2018The Spread of Plague\u2019, The Lancet, 1, 3828 (9 January 1897), 89.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)48740-4"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r81","unstructured":"Ibid; see also, Anon., \u2018The Plague in Hyderabad State\u2019, op. cit. (note\u00a075), 250."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r83","unstructured":"Punjab. Plague Department, Punjab Plague Hand-book, 1905. Lahore, 1905; British Library: Asian and African Studies; IOR\/V\/27\/856\/58."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r38","unstructured":"Hong Kong Government Gazette, GA 1895 no.\u00a0146, op. cit. (note\u00a014)."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r1","unstructured":"Mauritius, Report of the Special Committee of the Council of Government on Plague, 16 May 1899, enclosed in Plague General Despatches 1900 January\u2013May. Colonial Office, Series MH 19\/259, CO\u00a024828."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r43","unstructured":"Yersin appears enthusiastic about this in his correspondence to his mother; Archives Institut Pasteur, Fonds: Yersin Alexandre Cote: YER.Cor1 \u2013 Lieu: A1\/13."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r51","unstructured":"Correspondence re Improvement of Tai-Ping Shan, op. cit. (note\u00a024)."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r64","unstructured":"Ibid, 85. The lecture would be printed in two instalments in The Lancetas well as in pamphlet form."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r85","unstructured":"Ibid., 168."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r66","unstructured":"Ibid, 85."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r49","unstructured":"Correspondence re Improvement of Tai-Ping Shan, op. cit. (note\u00a024)."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r84","unstructured":"Rheinberger, \u2018Difference Machines\u2019, op. cit. (note\u00a057), 166."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r82","unstructured":"House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, Session 1901 [Cd.748]; Local Government Board. Reports and papers on bubonic plague, by Dr\u00a0R.\u00a0Bruce Low, 375\u20136."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r29","unstructured":"Sutphen, op. cit. (note\u00a08), 98."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"On Lowson see T.\u00a0Solomon, \u2018Hong Kong, 1894: The Role of James\u00a0A. Lowson in the Controversial Discovery of the Plague Bacillus\u2019, The Lancet, 350, 9070 (5 July 1997), 59\u201362.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(97)01438-4"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r67","unstructured":"Ibid, 89."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r80","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7312\/tsai91458","volume-title":"Hong Kong in Chinese History: Community and Social Unrest in the British Colony, 1842\u20131913","author":"Tsai","year":"1993"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r50","unstructured":"Chu, op. cit. (note\u00a023)."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r76","unstructured":"A.\u00a0H. Stevens , \u2018Memorandum on the Treatment of Plague-Infected Premises and the Destruction of the Infection by the Kiln-Process of Burning\u2019, enclosed in House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, Session 1900 [Cd.139], op. cit. (note\u00a071)."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r54","volume-title":"The Pasteurization of France","author":"Latour","year":"1993"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r26","unstructured":"Correspondence re Improvement of Tai-Ping Shan, op. cit. (note\u00a024)."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r36","unstructured":"Sutphen, op. cit. (note\u00a08), 96\u20137. The Koch connection relates to the famous discovery of anthrax spores by the German doctor."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r6","unstructured":"Ibid., 10. Mollaret conducted her own experiments with plague in the soil, acquiring positive results."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"James\u00a0A. Lowson to Kitasato Shibasaburo, Correspondence 10 August 1894, uncatalogued item at Kitasato Memorial Museum, Tokyo. Not in use at the time, the term Bacillus Kitasatoiensiswas here clearly employed to establish Kitasato\u2019s priority in the discovery of the bacillus which was generally referred to as Pasteurella pestis until 1944 when it was renamed Yersinia pestis, after Alexandre Yersin. On Lowson\u2019s antipathy for Yersin and the wider Kitasato-Yersin conflict, see D.\u00a0J.\u00a0Bibel and T.\u00a0E.\u00a0Chen, \u2018Diagnosis of Plague: An Analysis of the Yersin-Kitasato Controversy\u2019, Bacteriological Reviews, 40, 3 (September 1976), 633\u201351, and Solomon, \u2018Hong Kong, 1894\u2019, op. cit. (note\u00a037).","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.40.3.633-651.1976"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r79","unstructured":"House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, Session 1900 [Cd.139], op. cit. (note\u00a071)."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r53","volume-title":"City of Plagues: Disease, Poverty, and Deviance in San Francisco","author":"Craddock","year":"2004"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mary P. Sutphen , \u2018Not What, but Where: Bubonic Plague and the Reception of Germ Theories in Hong Kong and Calcutta\u2019, Journal of History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 52 (January 1997), 81\u2013113.","DOI":"10.1093\/jhmas\/52.1.81"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"James Cantlie , \u2018The Plague in Hong Kong\u2019, The British Medical Journal, 2, 1756 (25 August 1894), 423\u20137.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.1756.423"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"It should be noted that the bacteriological implication of the soil as a carrier or source of plague originally preceded and then run parallel to similar problematisations of typhoid fever in England, without, however, any direct reference on the part of colonial plague experts to typhoid-related research back in Britain; Jacob Steere-Williams, \u2018Performing State Medicine during its \u201cFrustrating\u201d Years: Epidemiology and Bacteriology at the Local Government Board, 1870\u20131900\u2019, Social History of Medicine, 28, 1 (2015), 82\u2013107.","DOI":"10.1093\/shm\/hku064"},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r31","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r22","unstructured":"Aoyoma\u2019s Report upon the Bubonic Plague (the substance of a report made to the Journal Club of the Johns Hopkins Hospital by Simon Flexner\u00a0M.D.); offprint of the Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin, 66\u20137 (September\u2013October 1896), 3."},{"key":"S0025727317000321_r60","unstructured":"Ibid."}],"container-title":["Medical History"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0025727317000321","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,29]],"date-time":"2022-07-29T15:04:02Z","timestamp":1659107042000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0025727317000321\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,12]]},"references-count":98,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,7]]}},"alternative-id":["S0025727317000321"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/mdh.2017.32","relation":{},"ISSN":["0025-7273","2048-8343"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0025-7273","type":"print"},{"value":"2048-8343","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,12]]},"assertion":[{"value":"\u00a9 The Author 2017. Published by Cambridge University Press.\u00a0This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.","name":"license","label":"License","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}}]}}