{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,19]],"date-time":"2026-02-19T03:57:37Z","timestamp":1771473457229,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,13]],"date-time":"2017-09-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1505260800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.cambridge.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Med. Hist."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Current policy and practice directed towards people with learning disabilities originates in the deinstitutionalisation processes, civil rights concerns and integrationist philosophies of the 1970s and 1980s. However, historians know little about the specific contexts within which these were mobilised. Although it is rarely acknowledged in the secondary literature, MIND was prominent in campaigning for rights-based services for learning disabled people during this time. This article sets MIND\u2019s campaign within the wider historical context of the organisation\u2019s origins as a main institution of the inter-war mental hygiene movement. The article begins by outlining the mental hygiene movement\u2019s original conceptualisation of \u2018mental deficiency\u2019 as the antithesis of the self-sustaining and responsible individuals that it considered the basis of citizenship and mental health. It then traces how this equation became unravelled, in part by the altered conditions under the post-war Welfare State, in part by the mental hygiene movement\u2019s own theorising. The final section describes the reconceptualisation of citizenship that eventually emerged with the collapse of the mental hygiene movement and the emergence of MIND. It shows that representations of MIND\u2019s rights-based campaigning (which have, in any case, focused on mental illness) as individualist, and fundamentally opposed to medicine and psychiatry, are inaccurate. In fact, MIND sought a comprehensive community-based service, integrated with the general health and welfare services and oriented around a reconstruction of learning disabled people\u2019s citizenship rights.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/mdh.2017.55","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,13]],"date-time":"2017-09-13T12:49:35Z","timestamp":1505306975000},"page":"481-499","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/policypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Citizenship and Learning Disabled People: The Mental Health Charity MIND\u2019s 1970s Campaign in Historical\u00a0Context"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"61","author":[{"given":"Jonathan","family":"Toms","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr74","unstructured":"MIND, Services for Mentally Handicapped People: MIND\u2019s Evidence to the Royal Commission on the National Health Service (London: MIND, 1977)."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr33","volume-title":"Junior Training Centres: An Outline of the Principles and Practices of Social Education and Training of the Mentally Subnormal Child","author":"Gunzburg","year":"1963"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr87","unstructured":"In other words, that people will not need tailored support or specialist services. Alan Heaton-Ward, Left Behind: A Study of Mental Handicap (London: Routledge, 1978), 78\u201380."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr53","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Unmet Need: The Case of the Neighbourhood Law Centre","author":"Byles","year":"1977"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr59","first-page":"17","article-title":"The Roots of a True Campaigning Movement","volume":"26","author":"Williams","year":"2013","journal-title":"Community Living"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr16","unstructured":"Jan Walmsley, Dorothy Atkinson and Sheena Rolph, \u2018Community care and mental deficiency 1913\u20131945\u2019, in Peter Bartlett and David Wright (eds), Outside the Walls of the Asylum: The History of Care in the Community 1750\u20132000 (London: The Athlone Press, 1999), 181\u2013203."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr5","unstructured":"Alexandra Bacopoulos-Viau and Aude Fauvel (editorial), \u2018The Patient\u2019s Turn: Roy Porter and Psychiatry\u2019s Tales, Thirty Years On\u2019, Medical History60, 1 (2016), 1\u201318; Sarah Chaney, \u201c\u2018No \u2018Sane\u2019 Person Would Have Any Idea\u201d: Patients\u2019 Involvement in Late Nineteenth-century Psychiatry\u2019, idem, 37\u201353; Hazel Morrison, \u2018Constructing Patient Stories: \u201cDynamic\u201d Case Notes and Clinical Encounters at Glasgow\u2019s Gartnavel Mental Hospital, 1921\u201332\u2019, idem, 67\u201386."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr80","unstructured":"MIND, Services, op. cit. (note 74), 4."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1163\/9789004418585_015","volume-title":"Cultures of Psychiatry and Mental Health Care in Post-War Britain and the Netherlands","author":"Barham","year":"1998"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr34","first-page":"101","volume-title":"Community Services for the Mentally Handicapped","author":"Tizard","year":"1964"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr76","unstructured":"For example, Editorial, \u2018The Issues of Mental Handicap\u2019, MIND OUT, 28 (1978), 2; Alison Wertheimer, \u2018Researching into Mental Handicap\u2019, MIND OUT, 40 (1980), 16\u201318: 17."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr41","unstructured":"A White Paper, Better Services for the Mentally Handicapped, was published in 1971, under the Conservative Government. Hospital population was to be reduced considerably but hospitals were not intended to be emptied and closed."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr3","unstructured":"Peter Sedgwick , Psychopolitics, ch.\u00a07 (London: Pluto Press, 1982); Rose, op. cit. (note 2)."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-349-17483-6"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr44","unstructured":"NAMH, Annual Report 1968\u20139, 8; Council of Management, 23 June 1967. SA\/MIN\/A\/3\/1."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"NAMH, Annual Report 1967\u20138, 18. SA\/MIN\/B\/80\/7\/2.","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9112\/18\/3\/009"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr8","unstructured":"Mathew Thomson, The Problem of Mental Deficiency: Eugenics, Democracy, and Social Policy in Britain, c.\u00a01870\u20131959 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), 217."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr1","unstructured":"For example, John Welshman and Jan Walmsley (eds), Community Care in Perspective: Care, Control and Citizenship (Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan, 2006); David Race, \u2018The historical context\u2019, in David Race (ed.), Learning Disability; A Social Approach (London: Routledge, 2002)."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr62","first-page":"21","article-title":"The Hospital as a Power House of Care","volume":"1","author":"Appleby","year":"1973","journal-title":"Apex"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr64","unstructured":"Reported in Mary Manning, \u2018Do Staff Really Need Qualifications?\u2019, Community Care1 October 1975, 7."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr60","unstructured":"NAMH Council of Management, 18 June 1971. SA\/MIN\/A\/3\/2."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr12","first-page":"27","volume-title":"Social Hygiene in Twentieth-Century Britain","author":"Jones","year":"1986"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr78","unstructured":"MIND, MIND\u2019s Further Evidence to the Royal Commission on the NHS (London: MIND, 1979), 10 (emphasis in original)."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr73","unstructured":"MIND, \u2018MIND\u2019s Evidence to the Peggy Jay Committee of Enquiry into the Care of the Mentally Handicapped\u2019 (March 1976), 1. SA\/MIN\/B\/80\/10."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr42","volume-title":"Put Away: A Sociological Study of Institutions for the Retarded","author":"Morris","year":"1969"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr6","unstructured":"The mental hygiene movement began in the United States in the first decade of the twentieth century. On this history, see, for example, Johannes Pols, \u201c\u2018Beyond the Clinical Frontiers\u201d: The American Mental Hygiene Movement, 1910\u20131945\u2019, in Volker Roelcke, Paul Weindling and Louise Westwood (eds), International Relations in Psychiatry: Britain, Germany and the United States to World War Two (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2010), 111\u201333."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr61","unstructured":"This was reprinted in NAMH, MIND and Mental Health, Summer (1972), 14\u201317. SA\/MIN\/B\/80\/27\/29."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr63","first-page":"20","article-title":"Wanted: Political Leadership not \u2018Generalised Goodwill\u2019","volume":"1, 1","author":"Shearer","year":"1973","journal-title":"Apex"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr36","first-page":"13","volume-title":"Subnormality in the 70s: Action for the Retarded","author":"Kushlick","year":"1972"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr49","unstructured":"Ibid., 8. SA\/MIN\/B\/80\/7\/2; C.H. Rolph, Believe What You Like: What Happened between the Scientologists and the National Association for Mental Health (London: Deustch, 1973); NAMH, op. cit. (note 45). SA\/MIN\/B\/80\/7\/2; Council of Management Minutes throughout 1967\u20131972. SA\/MIN\/A\/3\/1."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr67","unstructured":"Council of Management Minutes, 23 November 1973. SA\/MIN\/A\/3\/3."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr40","volume-title":"Sans Everything: A Case to Answer","author":"Robb","year":"1967"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr20","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(63)90928-0"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr45","unstructured":"NAMH, Annual Report 1969\u201370, 5. SA\/MIN\/B\/80\/7\/2."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr51","volume-title":"Citizenship and Social Class and Other Essays","author":"Marshall","year":"1950"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr47","unstructured":"Ibid., 4. SA\/MIN\/B\/80\/7\/2."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr19","unstructured":"For a fuller discussion of the NCCL\u2019s campaign, the input of psychologists and NAMH\u2019s response, see Jonathan Toms, Mental Hygiene and Psychiatry in Modern Britain (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2013), 120\u20135: 130\u20134."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr57","first-page":"43","volume-title":"Liberty in Britain, 1934\u20131994: A Diamond Jubilee History of the National Council of Civil Liberties","author":"Dyson","year":"1994"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr35","unstructured":"Norma V. Raynes and Roy D. King , \u2018Residential care for the mentally retarded\u2019 [1967], in D.M. Boswell and J.M. Wingrove (eds), The Handicapped Person in the Community (London: Tavistock and Oxford University Press, 1974), 299\u2013306: 299."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr38","unstructured":"NAMH, Annual Report 1965\u20136, 5; Council of Management Minutes, paper on \u2018National Trends and The Mental Health Services\u2019 21 November 1967. SA\/MIN\/A\/3\/1."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr83","unstructured":"MIND, Services, op. cit. (note 74), v: vi."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr14","unstructured":"See, for instance, Ruth Darwin, \u2018The proper care of defectives outside institutions\u2019, in Central Association for Mental Welfare, Report of a Conference on Mental Welfare Held in the Central Hall, Westminster, London, SW on Thursday and Friday, December the 2nd and 3rd, 1926 (London: CAMW, 1926), 23\u201335: 23\u20134."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr28","first-page":"85","article-title":"The Mental Deficiency Services Today and Tomorrow","volume":"15","author":"Tizard","year":"1956","journal-title":"Mental Health"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr4","unstructured":"For an overview, see Katja Guenther and Volker Hess (editorial), \u2018Soul Catchers: The Material Culture of the Mind Sciences\u2019, Medical History, 60, 3 (2016), 301\u20137."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr79","unstructured":"MIND, Services, op. cit. (note 74), 27."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr23","first-page":"87","article-title":"The Colony and the High-Grade Mental Defective","volume":"9","author":"Gunzburg","year":"1950","journal-title":"Mental Health"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr13","volume-title":"Child Guidance in Britain 1918\u20131955: The Dangerous Age of Childhood","author":"Stewart","year":"2013"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr15","unstructured":"Evelyn Fox, \u2018The Mentally Defective and the Community\u2019, Studies in Mental Inefficiency, 4, 4 (1923), 71\u20139. Wellcome Trust Archives and Manuscripts, Mind Archives: SA\/MIN\/B\/80\/57a."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr48","unstructured":"Ibid., 4."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr43","volume-title":"All About Us: The Story of People with a Learning Disability and Mencap","author":"Rix","year":"2006"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr2","unstructured":"Nikolas Rose, \u2018Unreasonable Rights: Mental Illness and the Limits of the Law\u2019, Journal of Law and Society, 12, 2 (1985), 199\u2013218; Nikolas Rose, \u2018Law, rights and psychiatry\u2019, in Nikolas Rose and Peter Miller, The Power of Psychiatry (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1986), 177\u2013213; Kathleen Jones, Asylums and After: A Revised History of the Mental Health Services: From the Early 18th Century to the 1990s (London: The Athlone Press, 1993)."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr31","unstructured":"See, for example, NAMH Annual Report 1963\u20134. SA\/MIN\/B\/80\/7\/2."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr27","first-page":"87","volume-title":"Crossing Boundaries: Change and Continuity in the History of Learning Disability","author":"Stainton","year":"2000"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr54","unstructured":"Regan et\u00a0al. op. cit. (note 52), 1."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr88","unstructured":"Report of the Committee of Enquiry into Mental Handicap Nursing and Care (Jay Committee) HMSO 1979 Cmnd 7468; MIND, MIND\u2019s Response to Jay, (1979), 20."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr32","unstructured":"For example, A.D.B. Clarke, Recent Advances in the Study of Mental Deficiency (London: NAMH, 1966). SA\/MIN\/B\/74a."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr58","unstructured":"NAMH, Annual Report, 1971\u20132, 12. SA\/MIN\/B\/80\/7\/3."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr82","unstructured":"MIND, Services, op. cit. (note 74), 27; 36."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr11","unstructured":"Thomson, op. cit. (note 8), 46\u20137. That the Act\u2019s extension of \u2018mental deficiency\u2019 to include people considered \u2018feebleminded\u2019 did have a significant class basis was, in fact, emphasised by Josiah Wedgewood, one of the few parliamentarians to strongly resist its implementation."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr21","unstructured":"John Hall, \u2018Mental Deficiency \u2013 Changing the Outlook\u2019, The Psychologist, 21, 11 (2008), 1006\u20137; Race, op. cit. (note 1)."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr70","unstructured":"Unsworth, op. cit. (note 17), 342\u20133."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr84","unstructured":"MIND, Services, op. cit. (note 74), 29: 14."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr71","unstructured":"Gostin, op. cit. (note 69), 15."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr18","unstructured":"Thomson, op. cit. (note 8), 293."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr81","unstructured":"MIND, Services, op. cit. (note 74), 28: 29."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr77","unstructured":"Editorial, \u2018The Issues of Mental Handicap\u2019, ibid., 2."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr89","unstructured":"Valuing People: A New Strategy for Learning Disability for the 21st Century, Cm 5086 (London: Department of Health, 2001)."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198265894.003.0005","volume-title":"The Transformation of Legal Aid: Comparative and Historical Studies","author":"Goriely","year":"1999"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr56","unstructured":"Maria Mayer-Kelly and Michael D. Kandiah (eds), \u2018The Poor Get Poorer Under Labour: the Validity and Effects of CPAG\u2019s Campaign in 1970\u2019, ICBH Witness Seminar Programme, seminar held 18 October 2000, (Institute of Contemporary British History, 2003, http:\/\/www.icbh.ac.uk\/icbh\/witness\/cpag\/, accessed 13 April 2016)."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr50","unstructured":"NAMH, MIND Manifesto, republished in MIND and Mental Health, 1 (1971), 3\u20136: 4. SA\/MIN\/B\/80\/27\/28."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr69","volume-title":"A Human Condition: The Mental Health Act from 1959 to 1975, Observations, Analysis and Proposals for Reform","author":"Gostin","year":"1975"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr66","unstructured":"NAMH, op. cit. (note 58), 7. SA\/MIN\/B\/80\/7\/3."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr25","volume-title":"Reclaiming the Past: The Role of Local Mencap Societies in the Development of Community Care in East Anglia","author":"Rolph","year":"2002"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr46","unstructured":"Ibid., 5."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr10","unstructured":"Thomson, op. cit. (note 8)."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr17","unstructured":"Clive Unsworth, The Politics of Mental Health Legislation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), 51\u20132."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr85","unstructured":"Indeed, this continued to leave people vulnerable to exploitation; see, for example, Granada TV\u2019s 1978 World in Actionwhich exposed the exploitation of learning disabled people in adult training centres: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=MgfjUh2j2Mo (accessed 22 June 16)."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.145.6.573"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr26","first-page":"334","volume-title":"Work, Psychiatry and Society, c. 1750\u20132015","author":"Long","year":"2016"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr24","first-page":"4","article-title":"A Rehabilitation Scheme for Certified Mental Defectives","volume":"14","author":"Clarke","year":"1954","journal-title":"Mental Health"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr72","unstructured":"For example, Co-ordination or Chaos? The Rundown of the Psychiatric Hospitals (London: MIND, 1974); MIND\u2019s Evidence to the Committee of Enquiry into Special Education (London: MIND, 1975); MIND, The Mental Handicap Component in Social Work Training (London: MIND, 1977)."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr7","unstructured":"It was originally called the Central Association for the Care of Mental Defectives, changing its title to CAMW in 1922."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr68","unstructured":"Jones, Asylums, op. cit. (note 2), 203; Anthony Clare, \u2018Can The Law Reform Psychiatry?\u2019 MIND OUT, 48 (1981), 17; Rose, \u2018Unreasonable Rights\u2019, op. cit. (note 2); Sedgwick, op. cit. (note 3), ch.\u00a07."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr29","unstructured":"Unsworth, op. cit. (note 17), 255\u20136."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr75","unstructured":"Ibid., 18."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr90","unstructured":"Welshman and Walmsley (eds), Community Care, op. cit. (note 1), 223."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr55","first-page":"179","article-title":"Up Against the Welfare State: The Claimant Unions","volume":"10","author":"Rose","year":"1973","journal-title":"Socialist Register"},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr30","unstructured":"Royal Commission on the Law Relating to Mental Illness and Mental Deficiency 1954\u20131957, Report (London: HMSO, 1957), Cmnd.169, para. 601."},{"key":"S0025727317000552_fnr9","unstructured":"For a recent example, David Stack, \u2018A Moment of Madness\u2019, Total Politics, 43, 2012."}],"container-title":["Medical History"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0025727317000552","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,26]],"date-time":"2024-06-26T22:46:49Z","timestamp":1719442009000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0025727317000552\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,13]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,10]]}},"alternative-id":["S0025727317000552"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/mdh.2017.55","relation":{},"ISSN":["0025-7273","2048-8343"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0025-7273","type":"print"},{"value":"2048-8343","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,13]]},"assertion":[{"value":"\u00a9 The Author 2017. Published by Cambridge University Press.\u00a0This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.","name":"license","label":"License","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}}]}}