{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T05:12:25Z","timestamp":1782364345181,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":212,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,19]],"date-time":"2019-12-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1576713600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["cambridge.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Med. Hist."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>At the end of the nineteenth century, the northern port of Liverpool had become the second largest in the United Kingdom. Fast transatlantic steamers to Boston and other American ports exploited this route, increasing the risk of maritime disease epidemics. The 1901\u20133 epidemic in Liverpool was the last serious smallpox outbreak in Liverpool and was probably seeded from these maritime contacts, which introduced a milder form of the disease that was more difficult to trace because of its long incubation period and occurrence of undiagnosed cases. The characteristics of these epidemics in Boston and Liverpool are described and compared with outbreaks in New York, Glasgow and London between 1900 and 1903. Public health control strategies, notably medical inspection, quarantine and vaccination, differed between the two countries and in both settings were inconsistently applied, often for commercial reasons or due to public unpopularity. As a result, smaller smallpox epidemics spread out from Liverpool until 1905. This paper analyses factors that contributed to this last serious epidemic using the historical epidemiological data available at that time. Though imperfect, these early public health strategies paved the way for better prevention of imported maritime diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/mdh.2019.74","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,19]],"date-time":"2019-12-19T11:10:56Z","timestamp":1576753856000},"page":"1-31","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/policypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["An Analysis of the United States and United Kingdom Smallpox Epidemics (1901\u20135) \u2013 The Special Relationship that Tested Public Health Strategies for Disease Control"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"64","author":[{"given":"Bernard","family":"Brabin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0025727319000747_r143","first-page":"113","article-title":"The Statistics of Anti-Typhoid Vaccine and Anti-Cholera Inoculations, and the Interpretation of Such Statistics in General","volume":"8","author":"Greenwood","year":"1915","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine (Section Epidemiology and Statistics Medicine)"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r195","volume-title":"Report of the Public Health Department","author":"Macgregor","year":"1942"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r86","unstructured":"Ibid., 128."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0025727300048225"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r81","unstructured":"\u2018The Smallpox, Liverpool, no Fresh Cases, Infected Cattlemen Removed to Hospital\u2019, The Liverpool Daily Post, 8 February (1902), 6."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r25","unstructured":"The Lancet, editorial, 1 (1880), 687\u20139."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r63","unstructured":"Metropolitan Asylums Board Annual Report 1901, Sixteenth Report of the Statistical Committee (London: McCorquadale & Co. Ltd., 1902)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r93","unstructured":"Annual Reports on the Health of the City of Liverpool during 1900 to 1904 (Liverpool: C. Tinling and Co., Printing Contractors, 1901). Estimates compiled from figures available from Annual Health Reports produced by Dr E.W. Hope, Medical Officer of Health for Liverpool, for the years 1900 to 1904, and published in the years 1901, 1902, 1903, 1904 and 1905."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r203","first-page":"329","article-title":"Disease Exchange across the Tropical Atlantic","volume":"15","author":"Curtin","year":"1993","journal-title":"History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r70","unstructured":"Thomas Clarke, \u2018Introductory Address to the Section on Port Sanitary Administration, Royal Institute of Public Health Congress, Liverpool, July 1903\u2019, Journal of State Medicine, 11, 8 (1903): 454\u201361."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r126","unstructured":"William Knollys, On the \u2018Observations\u2019 of Dr Hope, Medical Officer of Health for the City of Liverpool, upon the Report of Their Inspector, Dr Reece, on \u2018Smallpox and Smallpox Hospitals in Liverpool\u2019, and Also on Dr Hope\u2019s Previous Report on Smallpox in Liverpool, William Edward Knollys, Assistant Secretary Local Government Board, Whitehall, Addressed to the Town Clerk, Local Government Board Liverpool. London: Whitehall, 11 August 1905."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r23","unstructured":"Port of London Sanitary Committee. Annual Report of the Medical Officer of Health to 31 December 1902. May 1903, 23\u20135."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2012.00150"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r19","unstructured":"Annual Report of the Surgeon General of the Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service of the United States, Fiscal Year 1904 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1905), 100."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r16","unstructured":"Public Health (Shipping) Act (1885), 48 & 49, and Public Health Act (1872), 75 & 76 Vict. c. 79, sec. 3, 20."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r44","unstructured":"Willrich, op. cit. (note\u00a039), 41\u201374, 167."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r64","unstructured":"Ibid., 108."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r68","unstructured":"\u2018The American Mails. Performances Outward and Homeward, Cunarders at the Front\u2019, The Liverpool Post, 11 April (1900)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r209","unstructured":"Hopkins, op. cit. (note 2), 291."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r71","unstructured":"Port of Liverpool, Annual Report of the Medical Officer of Health to the Port Sanitary Authority for the Year 1900 (Liverpool: C. Tinling and Co., Printing Contractors, 1901), 16\u201317."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0025727300042599"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r62","unstructured":"Albert, op. cit. (note 59), 375."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.2130.1289","article-title":"Mr Bernard Shaw on Smallpox Prevention","volume":"2","author":"Bernard Shaw","year":"1901","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r159","unstructured":"\u2018New Stations Opened on Huntington Ave.\u2019, The Boston Globe, 19 November 1901; \u2018Lull in Vaccination\u2019, The Boston Globe, 8 December (1901); \u2018Dr A.W. Bowman Takes Issue with Other Physicians and the Board of Health\u2019, The Cambridge Chronicle, 9 August (1902), 6."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r181","unstructured":"\u2018Smallpox in Liverpool, Traceable to Original Source\u2019, The Liverpool Daily Post, 5 February (1902), 4."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r155","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp048209"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r188","unstructured":"The Cambridge Chronicle, Lifebuoy soap advertisement, 28 June (1902), 3."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r210","unstructured":"Chapin, op. cit. (note 3), 194."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1105.040616","article-title":"Osler and the Infected Letter","volume":"11","author":"Ambrose","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerging Infectious Diseases"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r108","unstructured":"Wallach, op. cit. (note 11), 68\u20139."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r207","unstructured":"Edward William Hope, Health at the Gateway: Problems and International Obligations of a Seaport City (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1931). Biographical details in: June Clayton, \u2018Aspects of the Life and Work of Dr. Edward William Hope, Assistant Medical Officer of Health for Liverpool, 1883\u201394, and Medical Officer of Health for Liverpool, 1894\u20131924\u2019 (Unpublished MPhil thesis: University of Liverpool, 1999).www.evolve360.co.uk\/Data\/10\/Docs\/13\/13Clayton.pdf."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r162","unstructured":"The Liverpool Daily Post, op. cit. (note 112)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r199","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/014107680409700512"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r91","unstructured":"Southampton 1902 Public Health Report, 26."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r105","unstructured":"Wallach, op. cit. (note 11), 152\u20133."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r102","unstructured":"Ibid., p. 132, and Half-Yearly Report of the Medical Officer (London: Port of London, December 1876), 9."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r84","unstructured":"St Johns, Newfoundland. Register of Deaths St Johns City District, Book 3 (1901\u20132), 333\u20139."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r172","first-page":"1974","article-title":"Government Control of Vaccine Virus","volume":"43","year":"1904","journal-title":"Journal of the American Medical Association"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r83","first-page":"2176","article-title":"A Case of Smallpox on Schooner Thalia at Halifax","volume":"16","author":"Adee","year":"1901","journal-title":"Public Health Reports"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r75","unstructured":"\u2018Eight Cases on Board\u2019, The Boston Globe, 7 February (1902), 4."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r65","unstructured":"Archibald Kerr Chalmers, \u2018Smallpox, 1900\u20132\u2019, Corporation of Glasgow Report (West Nile Street, Glasgow: Robert Anderson, Printer, 1902), 8\u201310."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwg104","article-title":"Case Isolation and Contact Tracing Can Prevent the Spread of Smallpox","volume":"158","author":"Eichner","year":"2003","journal-title":"American Journal of Epidemiology"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r161","first-page":"133","volume-title":"A Concise History of Smallpox and Vaccination in Europe","author":"Edwardes","year":"1902"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwg225"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.2166.30"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r72","unstructured":"Ibid., 17."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r132","unstructured":"\u2018New Ferry Smallpox Hospital to Be Moved\u2019, Bebington News and Advertiser, 13 September (1958), 1."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r47","unstructured":"United States National Census 1900. 12th Census Population. United States Federal Census Records, www.Censusrecords.com."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r67","first-page":"198","volume-title":"Smallpox","author":"William Dixon","year":"1962"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1515\/9781580468718","volume-title":"Infections, Chronic Disease, and the Epidemiological Transition: A New Perspective","author":"Mercer","year":"2014"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r131","unstructured":"\u2018Residents Irate at Hospital Board Rebuff, Forming Committee of Public Safety\u2019, Bebington News and Advertiser, 19 July (1958), 1."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r89","unstructured":"McVail, op. cit. (note 49), 8, 26."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r92","unstructured":"Chapin, op. cit. (note 3)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r170","unstructured":"Walter Reed was a United States army physician who won fame in 1901 leading the team that postulated and confirmed the theory that yellow fever is transmitted by a particular mosquito species, rather than by direct contact."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r76","unstructured":"Wallach, op. cit. (note 11), chapter three, \u2018The 1901\u20132 smallpox epidemic in Boston and Cambridge\u2019, 61."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r87","unstructured":"Port of London Sanitary Committee, Annual Report of the Medical Officer of Health to 31 December 1902, May 1903, appendix H, 83."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r35","unstructured":"The Public Health Act 1896 (Statute 59 and 60, c19) made provisions with respect to epidemic, endemic and infectious diseases and repealed the 1825 Quarantine Act (Statute 6 Geo iv, c78), and sections in other acts in which quarantine was mentioned. The Act united for the first time the sanitary arrangements of the United Kingdom."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r55","unstructured":"Ibid., 59."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r85","unstructured":"Hardy, op. cit. (note 13), 128 and 132."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r51","unstructured":"Chapin, op. cit. (note\u00a03), 186."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r186","unstructured":"Albert, op. cit. (note 59), 378, Figure 3."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r134","first-page":"669","article-title":"An Airborne Outbreak of Smallpox in a German Hospital and Its Significance with Respect to Other Recent Outbreaks in Europe","volume":"43","author":"Wehrle","year":"1970","journal-title":"Bulletin of the World Health Organisation"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r112","unstructured":"\u2018Smallpox in Liverpool. The Conscientious Objector\u2019s Clause, Suggested Repeal\u2019, The Liverpool Daily Post, 31 January (1902), 7."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r96","unstructured":"Report by Dr Richard J. Reece to the Local Government Board on Smallpox and Smallpox Hospitals at Liverpool, 1902\u20133 (London: His Majesty\u2019s Stationary Office, Darling and Son Ltd, 1905), 10, https:\/\/search.wellcomelibrary.org\/iii\/encore\/record\/CRb2136004."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r176","unstructured":"Eichner, op. cit. (note 94), 719\u201321."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r79","unstructured":"\u2018The American Mails, Performances Outward and Homeward. Cunarders to the Front\u2019, The Liverpool Daily Post, 11 April (1900), 3."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r69","first-page":"39","volume-title":"Annual Report on the Health of the City of Liverpool during 1901","author":"William Hope","year":"1902"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.56021\/9780801850967","volume-title":"Silent Travelers: Germs, Genes, and the \u2019Immigrant Menace\u2019","author":"Kraut","year":"1995"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r77","unstructured":"\u2018Alarm Was Needless. Smallpox Has Never Been Epidemic Here. Less than Two Cases in Every 3000 of the Population of Boston\u2019, The Boston Globe, 15 December (1901)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r128","unstructured":"Memorandum by Dr R.J. Reece, as to Questions Raised by Dr Hope Regarding His Report on Smallpox and Smallpox Hospitals at Liverpool 1902\u20133, Richard J. Reece, 6 July 1905, https:\/\/search.wellcomelibrary.org\/iii\/ encore\/record\/C_Rb2136006."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r164","unstructured":"Hennock, op. cit. (note 151)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.2104.1054-c"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r56","unstructured":"Ibid., 68\u20139."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r189","unstructured":"Wallach, op. cit. (note 11), 84."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r48","unstructured":"Annual Report of the Surgeon General of the Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service of the United States, Fiscal Year 1901 (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1902), 319\u201344, 579\u201382."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r40","unstructured":"Chapin, op. cit. (note\u00a03), 186."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14786440009463897"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r141","first-page":"208","volume-title":"Smallpox and Its Eradication. Epidemiology Section","author":"Fenner","year":"1988"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/bsp.2013.1211"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r95","unstructured":"Sixty-sixth Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales (1903) (London: His Majesty\u2019s Stationery Office, Darling and Son, Ltd., 1905), xiviii."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r66","unstructured":"Detailed Annual Reports of the Registrar-General (Ireland), for 1902 (39th), 1903 (40th), 1904 (41st) containing numbers and causes of deaths registered in Ireland for that year (Dublin: His Majesty\u2019s Stationery Office, Cahill and Co., 1903, 1904, 1905)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1057\/9780230293199"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a112666"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-6-126"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r2","first-page":"87","volume-title":"Princes and Peasants, Smallpox in History","author":"Hopkins","year":"1983"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r198","unstructured":"Dixon, op. cit. (note 67), 342."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r192","unstructured":"Dixon, op. cit. (note 67), 314."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-137-12-200212170-00013"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r190","unstructured":"This episode is outlined in Wallach, op. cit. (note 11): Immanuel Pfeiffer versus the Boston Board of Health, 127\u201345."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r27","unstructured":"London Metropolitan Asylums Board Annual Report 1900 (London: M. Corquadale and Co. Ltd., 1901)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r12","unstructured":"Ibid., 16."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200102013440511"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/13.2.171"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780198203773.001.0001"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511666865"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r158","unstructured":"Wallach, op. cit. (note 11), 84\u20138."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r90","unstructured":"Ibid., p. 6 (Table II)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r39","first-page":"219","volume-title":"Pox. An American History","author":"Willrich","year":"2011"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r45","unstructured":"Thirty-First Annual Report of the Health Department of the City of Boston for the Year 1902 (Boston: City of Boston Printing Department, 1903), 36."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/003591577306601020"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2009\/591935"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r202","first-page":"313","article-title":"The European-American Exchange","volume":"15","author":"Guerra","year":"1993","journal-title":"History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r150","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1215\/9780822386506"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4682-5-20"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r80","unstructured":"Hope, 1903, op. cit. (note 73)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r52","unstructured":"Thirtieth Boston Annual Health Department Report, op. cit. (note\u00a050), 44."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r24","unstructured":"Ibid., Appendix H, 77\u201391."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r33","unstructured":"Liverpool and Emigration in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. National Museums Liverpool, Maritime Archives and Library, Information Sheet 64."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/bhm.2014.0018"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r14","first-page":"218","article-title":"A Gate to the City: The Baltimore Quarantine Station, 1918\u201328","volume":"110","author":"Markel","year":"1995","journal-title":"Public Health Reports"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r151","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/shm\/11.1.49"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r169","unstructured":"M.J. Rosenaau, \u2018The Bacteriological Impurities of Vaccine Virus. An Experimental Study\u2019, Hygienic Laboratory Bulletin No. 12, March 1903. Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service of the United States (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1903)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r88","unstructured":"Ibid., appendix H, pp. 77\u201391."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r78","unstructured":"\u2018Smallpox in Liverpool, a Fresh Case Reported Today. Forty-two Cases in the City\u2019, The Liverpool Echo, 17 February (1902), 5."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268808000459"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r49","first-page":"10","volume-title":"Half a Century of Smallpox and Vaccination","author":"Christie McVail","year":"1919"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r165","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtbi.2006.01.012"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r54","unstructured":"Wallach, op. cit. (note\u00a011), chapter three, \u2019The 1901\u20132 smallpox epidemic in Boston and Cambridge\u2019, 75\u20138."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1017\/9781782046851","volume-title":"The Antivaccine Heresy: Jacobson v. Massachusetts\u00a0and the Troubled History of Compulsory Vaccination in the United States","author":"Wallach","year":"2015"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r41","unstructured":"Hopkins, op. cit. (note\u00a02), 288."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r29","first-page":"188","volume-title":"Medical History of Liverpool from the Earliest Days to the Year 1920","author":"Herbert Bickerton","year":"1936"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r160","unstructured":"\u2018Smallpox at New Ferry, Reassuring Statement by Dr Kenyon\u2019, The Birkenhead and Cheshire Advertiser and Wallasey Guardian, 1 February (1902), 8."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r31","unstructured":"Hardy, op. cit. (note 13), 122\u20133, 129."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000747_r106.1","unstructured":"'Mayer McNamee Scores a Point', Cambridge Chronicle, 12 July (1902), 1"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000747_r106.2","unstructured":"'Smallpox Scourge', Cambridge Chronicle, 21 June (1902)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000747_r106.3","unstructured":"'Dr A.W. Bowman takes Issue with Other Physicians and the Board of Health', Cambridge Chronicle, 9 August (1902), 6."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mbs.2005.03.006"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r168","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc1707600"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r167","unstructured":"Williams, op. cit. (note 42), 270."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r82","unstructured":"City of Liverpool, in E.W. Hope (ed.) Handbook Compiled for the Royal Institute of Public Health, Liverpool Congress, 15\u201321 July 1903 (Liverpool: Lee and Nightingale, Printers)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r32","unstructured":"William Hanna, Report on Marine Hygiene: Being Suggestions for Improvements in the Sanitary Arrangements and Appliances on Shipboard.Liverpool Port Sanitary Authority (Liverpool: C. Tinling and Co. Ltd., 1917)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r36","unstructured":"Booker, op. cit. (note 34), 549\u201350."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r103","unstructured":"Nishiura, op. cit. (note 10). The 99% upper confidence limit of the incubation period is 22.2 days, suggesting that quarantine should last twenty-three days."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r97","first-page":"32","volume-title":"Annual Report on the Health of the City of Liverpool during 1903","author":"William Hope","year":"1904"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r200","unstructured":"Chapin, op. cit. (note 3), 190."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r194","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/125.2.161"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r118","unstructured":"Liverpool Smallpox Register, op. cit. (note 30)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r115","unstructured":"Albert et\u00a0al., op. cit. (note 59), 375\u20136."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r107","unstructured":"Albert et\u00a0al., op. cit. (note 59), 375\u20136."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r156","unstructured":"The background and history of this judicial court activity are discussed in detail in Wallach, op. cit. (note 11) chapter nine, Jacobson versus Massachusetts, 187\u2013214."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r109","volume-title":"A Proposal to Stamp Out Smallpox","author":"Simpson","year":"1868"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r125","unstructured":"Edward William Hope, Observations of the Medical Officer of Health on the Report of Dr R.J. Reece to the Local Government Board on Smallpox and Smallpox Hospitals at Liverpool, 1902\u20133, ordered by the Port Sanitary and Hospitals Committee (Liverpool: C. Tinling and Co., 1905)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.3503.300"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2.5.384","article-title":"Retirement of Dr Samuel H. Durgin from the Boston Health Board","volume":"2","author":"Babbitt","year":"1912","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health (New York)"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r124","unstructured":"Ibid., (note 96)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r129","unstructured":"\u2018Smallpox Case Renews \u201cMove Hospital\u201d Call\u2019, Bebington News and Advertiser, 19 April (1958), 1."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r205","unstructured":"Henderson, op. cit. (note 135)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r130","unstructured":"\u2018Disease Spread by Flies Says Ex-Health Chief\u2019, Bebington News and Advertiser, 24 May (1958), 5."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r98","unstructured":"United States National Census, 1900, op. cit. (note 47)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r173","unstructured":"Ibid., 1974."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r50","unstructured":"Thirtieth Annual Report of the Health Department of the City of Boston for the Year 1901 (Boston: City of Boston Printing Department, 1902), 43."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r100","unstructured":"Chalmers, op. cit. (note 65), 9."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.361"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r133","unstructured":"Bebington News and Advertiser, op. cit. (note 130)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r58","unstructured":"\u2018Three Strong Letters against Quarantine, The Board of Health\u2019s Opinion. Dr Brough\u2019s Opinion\u2019, Cambridge Chronicle, 19 July (1896)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r139","first-page":"421","article-title":"Smallpox Epidemic in Gdansk in 1962","volume":"19","author":"Bincer","year":"1965","journal-title":"Przegl Epidemiology"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r57","unstructured":"Ibid., 152\u20133."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.2166.27"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/1.3.375"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r137","unstructured":"Mark Pallen, The Last Days of Smallpox, Tragedy in Birmingham (Independently published, 2018), 230."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r163","unstructured":"\u2018Is Vaccination Efficient? Value and Defects\u2019, The Liverpool Daily Post, 1 February, (1902), 6."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r152","unstructured":"Albert, op. cit. (note 59), and \u2019Hearing Over\u2019, The Boston Globe, 5 February (1902), 4."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r166","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(17)30445-0"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r37","unstructured":"United States Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service Annual Report,1905, 221."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r175","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4682-5-20"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r177","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00000441-191310000-00015"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r38","unstructured":"Markel, op. cit. (note 14)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r178","unstructured":"Studies in Smallpox and Sanitation Based on the Experience of the City of Liverpool. A Reply to the Book Entitled\u00a0Studies in Smallpox and Vaccination\u00a0by William Hanna (The National Anti-Vaccination League, Strand, London, 1913)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r113","unstructured":"Ibid., 31 January (1902)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r179","unstructured":"In the Annual Report for 1885 the then Medical Officer of Health, Dr J. Stopford Taylor, estimated that 92% of the people of Liverpool were more or less efficiently vaccinated. His successor, Dr E.W. Hope, said that there were grounds for supposing that Liverpool was amongst the best vaccinated communities in the country."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r180","unstructured":"The Liverpool Daily Post, op. cit. (note 112)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r183","unstructured":"The Liverpool Echo, Advertisement, 16 January (1902), 3."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r1","first-page":"582","volume-title":"A History of Epidemics in Britain, Volume Two 1666\u20131893","author":"Creighton","year":"1965"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r185","unstructured":"\u2019Anti-vaccination\u2019, The Cambridge Chronicle, 29 March (1901)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r187","unstructured":"The Boston Post, Radam\u2019s microbe killer advertisment, 4 December (1901), 7."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r191","unstructured":"McVail, op. cit. (note 49), 24."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.56021\/9780801842412","volume-title":"World Trade since 1431","author":"Hugill","year":"1993"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r26","unstructured":"Burne, op. cit. (note 17)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r196","unstructured":"Dixon, op. cit. (note 67), 341."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r110","unstructured":"Reece, op. cit. (note 96), 2\u20133."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r101","unstructured":"Hardy, op. cit. (note 13), 132, and Half-Yearly Report of the Medical Officer (London: Port of London, June 1881), 4."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r46","unstructured":"Ibid., 172."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r154","unstructured":"Ibid.,116\u201320."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r99","unstructured":"United Kingdom National Archives, 1901 Census."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r206","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2013.08.039"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r153","unstructured":"Wallach, op. cit. (note 11), 6\u20137, 102\u201326, 146\u201362. Wallach outlines the 1902 campaign to amend the compulsory vaccination laws and the conflict between the anti-vaccinationists and Dr Samual Durgin, Chair of Public Health. The Massachusetts state legislature went back and forth on the issue of compulsory vaccination for several years, but in 1914 amended the law to allow unvaccinated children admission to public schools if their parents opposed vaccination (Wallach, 216)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r34","first-page":"547","volume-title":"Maritime Quarantine. The British Expansion, 1650\u20131900","author":"Booker","year":"2007"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r61","unstructured":"Thirty-first Boston Annual Health Department Report, op. cit. (note 45), 36."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r111","unstructured":"Clarke, op. cit. (note 70), 458."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r74","unstructured":"Port Sanitary Hospital, op. cit. (note 30). These men had different occupations, including baker, engineers, firemen, carpenter, sailor and boatswain."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r20","unstructured":"Annual Report of the Surgeon General of the Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service of the United States, Fiscal Year 1903 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1904), 192\u20133. He later won recognition for the identification of a quirk in the flea population of San Francisco, California, and helped prevent a wider outbreak of plague which had been infecting the city population since 1900. Public Health Reports, 25 September 1908, quoted in David K. Randall, Black Death at the Golden Gate: The race to save America from the bubonic plague (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2019), 210\u201311."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r193","unstructured":"Port Sanitary Hospital, City of Liverpool Smallpox Register, op. cit. (note 30)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r127","unstructured":"Mortimer, op. cit. (note 122)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r174","unstructured":"Hanna, op. cit. (note 32), 24."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r184","unstructured":"The Boston Globe, op. cit. (note 77)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r197","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.4275.706-b"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r171","unstructured":"Willrich, op. cit. (note 39), 184."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r21","unstructured":"Barnes, op. cit. (note 15)."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r73","first-page":"26","volume-title":"Annual Report on the Health of the City of Liverpool during 1902","author":"William Hope","year":"1903"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r114","first-page":"24","volume-title":"Annual Report on the Health of the City of Liverpool during 1903","author":"William Hope","year":"1904"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r201","unstructured":"Willrich, op. cit. (note 39), 338\u20139."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r30","unstructured":"Port Sanitary Hospital, New Ferry, City of Liverpool Smallpox Register, Wirral Archives, Cheshire Lines Building Centre, Birkenhead, Wirral."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r60","unstructured":"Wallach, op. cit. (note 11), 69."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r147","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/bhm.2004.0062"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0498.2007.00084.x"},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r121","unstructured":"Willrich, op. cit. (note 39), 276\u20138."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r28","unstructured":"Infectious Diseases Notification Act (1899), 62 & 63 Vict. c. 8."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r208","unstructured":"McVail, op. cit. (note 49), 24."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r18","unstructured":"Annual Report of the Surgeon General of the Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service of the United States, Fiscal Year 1902 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1903), 303\u20133."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r148","unstructured":"Hopkins, op. cit. (note 2), 293."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r43","unstructured":"Chapin, op. cit. (note\u00a03), 186."},{"key":"S0025727319000747_r5","first-page":"41","volume-title":"A History of the County of Lancaster, Volume 4","author":"Farrer","year":"1911"}],"container-title":["Medical History"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0025727319000747","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,28]],"date-time":"2024-07-28T22:24:14Z","timestamp":1722205454000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0025727319000747\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,19]]},"references-count":212,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]}},"alternative-id":["S0025727319000747"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/mdh.2019.74","relation":{},"ISSN":["0025-7273","2048-8343"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0025-7273","type":"print"},{"value":"2048-8343","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,19]]},"assertion":[{"value":"\u00a9 The Author 2019. Published by Cambridge University Press.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}},{"value":"This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.","name":"license","label":"License","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}}]}}