{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T23:53:19Z","timestamp":1773273199987,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,19]],"date-time":"2019-12-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1576713600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["cambridge.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Med. Hist."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper addresses the relative scholarly oversight of the history of public health in Haiti through a close examination of the colonial public health system constructed and operated by the United States (US) during its occupation of Haiti from 1915 to 1934. More than simply documenting a neglected aspect of Caribbean history, the paper offers the US occupation of Haiti as a remarkably clear example of a failed attempt to use a free public health service to cultivate a health conscientiousness among the Haitian citizenry through the aggressive treatment of highly visible ailments such as cataracts and yaws. I argue that the US occupation viewed the success of the Haitian Public Health Service as critical to the generation of a taxable, compliant and trusting citizenry that the colonial state could enter into a contract with. This idealistic programme envisioned by the US occupation was marred by financial mismanagement, racism, delusions of grandeur and contempt for Haitian physicians that resulted in the production of a far more precarious public health service and administrative state than the US occupation had hoped. By the time the Great Depression arrived in 1930 the Haitian Public Health Service was gutted and privatised, having successfully provided the majority of Haitians with free healthcare, yet failed to have persuaded them of the value of being governed by a centralised administrative state.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/mdh.2019.75","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,19]],"date-time":"2019-12-19T06:10:56Z","timestamp":1576735856000},"page":"32-51","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/policypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["\u2018To Awaken the Medical and Hygienic Conscience of the People\u2019: Cultivating Enlightened Citizenship through Free Public Healthcare in Haiti from\u00a01915\u201334"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"64","author":[{"given":"Elliott M.","family":"Reichardt","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0025727319000759_r78","unstructured":"Russell, op. cit. (note 74), iv."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r10","unstructured":"Dr H.A. May, Dr P.E. Garrison, \u2018Preliminary Report Upon the Sanitary Conditions in Port au Prince, Haiti, and its Environs. October 18, 1915\u2019, folder 1684, box 142, FA115, RG 5, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r104","unstructured":"Parsons, op. cit., (note 25), 185."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r85","unstructured":"Emily Greene Balch, OCCUPIED HAITI: Being the Report of a Committee of Six Disinterested Americans Representing Organizations Exclusively American, Who, Having Personally Studied Conditions in Haiti in 1926, Favor the Restoration of the Independence of the Negro Republic (New York, NY: The Writers Publishing Company Inc., 1927)."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r103","unstructured":"McClellan III, ibid.; Pamphile, op. cit. (note 2); Trouillot, op. cit. (note 16); Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti: State against Nation (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990); Chantalle F. Verna, Haiti and the Uses of America: Post-US Occupation Promises (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2017)."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r102","unstructured":"Ary Bordes , Ha\u00efti, la sant\u00e9 de la r\u00e9publique 1934\u20131957 (Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie Deschamps, 1997); Ary Bordes, \u00c9volution des sciences de la sant\u00e9 et de l\u2019hygi\u00e8ne publique en Ha\u00efti ([Port-au-Prince?]: Centre d\u2019hygi\u00e8ne familiale, 1980); Laura Briggs, Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science, and US Imperialism in Puerto Rico, vol. 11 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2003); Brodwin, op. cit. (note 55); Davidson, op. cit. (note 5); Espinosa, op. cit. (note 7); James E. McClellan III, Colonialism and Science: Saint Domingue and the Old Regime (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2010); Packard, op. cit. (note 32); Steven Paul Palmer, Launching Global Health: The Caribbean Odyssey of the Rockefeller Foundation (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2010); Antony Dalziel McNeil Stewart, \u2018An Imperial Laboratory: The Investigation and Treatment of Treponematoses in Occupied Haiti, 1915\u20131934\u2019, Hist\u00f3ria, Ci\u00eancias, Sa\u00fade-Manguinhos, 24, 4 (2017), 1089\u2013106."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r96","unstructured":"Rulx L\u00e9on, \u2018Le Service d\u2019higi\u00e8ne et d\u2019\u00e1ssistence Publique En Haiti\u2019, PAHO\/WHO Institutional Repository (1933), online: http:\/\/iris.paho.org\/xmlui\/handle\/123456789\/10238."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r101","unstructured":"Camille Lh\u00e9risson, \u2018Diseases of the Peasants of Haiti\u2019, American Journal of Public Health and the Nations Health, 25, 8 (1935), 924\u20139."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r94","unstructured":"Ibid., 43."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r90","unstructured":"Ibid., 20."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r84","unstructured":"The \u2018independence debt\u2019 is one of the most controversial of the debts leveraged on Haiti. This debt originated in 1824 as part of a negotiated deal between France and Haiti. France requested the sum of 150 million francs to compensate French colonists for the property that they \u2018lost\u2019 following the slave revolt that resulted in the founding of Haiti. In return, the French government would recognise \u2018Saint Domingue\u2019 as sovereign and would no longer enforce a naval blockade of Haiti. Schmidt op. cit. (note 82), 25\u201326."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r74","unstructured":"John Henry Russell, Eighth Annual Report of the American High Commissioner at Port Au Prince, Haiti, to the Secretary of State. 1929 (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1930), 33."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r73","unstructured":"Butler, op. cit. (note 17), 48."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r71","unstructured":"Russell, Sixth Annual Report 1927, op. cit. (note 58), 26."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r70","unstructured":"O.J. Mink , \u2018Toxic Effects of Arsenical Compounds Employed in the Treatment of Syphilis in the United States Navy\u2019, United States Naval Medical Bulletin, 32, 2 (1933), 177."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r65","unstructured":"John H. Russell , First Annual Report of the American High Commissioner at Port Au Prince, Haiti, to the Secretary of State: 1921, 1 (1922), 15."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r15","unstructured":"United States and W. Cameron Forbes, Report of the President\u2019s Commission for the Study and Review of Conditions in the Republic of Haiti: March 26, 1930 (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1930)."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r62","unstructured":"Millspaugh, op. cit., (note 6), 88, notes that some Haitians were convinced that the US occupation\u2019s \u2018real purpose was to destroy Haitian independence and exploit Haitian resources for their own benefit\u2019."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r58.1","unstructured":"The American Red Cross was a substantial supporter of public health works during the US occupation. It provided initial funding for the first set of 'free rural dispensaries', funded a nursing school and the re-fabrication of a surgical ward, and notably oversaw reconstruction efforts following the 1927 and 1928 hurricanes. John H. Russell, Second Annual Report of the American High Commissioner at Port Au Prince, Haiti, to the Secretary of State: 1922, 2 (1923), 14"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r58.2","unstructured":"John H. Russell, Sixth Annual Report of the American High Commissioner at Port Au Prince, Haiti, to the Secretary of State: 1927, 6 (1928), 18"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r58.3","unstructured":"John H. Russell, Seventh Annual Report of the American High Commissioner at Port Au Prince, Haiti, to the Secretary of State: 1928, 7 (1929), 34."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r53","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r51","unstructured":"Ibid.; United States and Atlee Pomerene, Treaty with Haiti. Treaty between the United States and Haiti. Finances, Economic Development and Tranquility [Sic] of Haiti. Signed at Port-Au-Prince, September 16, 1915. (1915)."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r45","unstructured":"R.B. Storch , \u2018Personal Experiences with Malaria Among Natives of the Republic of Haiti\u2019, United States Naval Medical Bulletin, 19, 3 (1923), 422."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r21","unstructured":"C.S. Butler and R.M. Choisser , \u2018Rural and Municipal Water Supplies in Haiti\u2019, The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, s1\u20138, 1 (1928), 9\u201315."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r44","unstructured":"E. Vermeire et\u00a0al., \u2018Patient Adherence to Treatment: Three Decades of Research. A Comprehensive Review\u2019, Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics, 26, 5 (2001), 331\u201342. Nancy Houston Miller, \u2018Compliance with Treatment Regimens in Chronic Asymptomatic Diseases\u2019, The American Journal of Medicine, 102, 2, Supplement 1 (1997), 43\u20139."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r43","unstructured":"Allen, op. cit. (note 40), 404."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r41","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r40","unstructured":"A.H. Allen , \u2018Report of an Antimalarial Campaign Conducted by the Medical Officers of the First Brigade, United States Marines, in Haiti\u2019, United States Naval Medical Bulletin, 19, 4 (1923), 402\u20137."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r39","unstructured":"C.C. Bass , \u2018Studies on Malaria Control. III: Observations on the Prevalence of Malaria, and its Control by treating Malaria Carriers, in a Locality of great Prevalence in the Mississippi Delta\u2019, Southern Medical Journal, 12, 4 (1919)."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r38","unstructured":"Allen, op. cit. (note 31)."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r35","unstructured":"Enlarged spleens were believed to indicate the presence of a malaria infection."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r33","unstructured":"Allen, op. cit., (note 31)."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r32.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M.E. Connor , 'Final Report on the Control of Yellow Fever in Merida, Yucatan, Mexico', The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, s1-2, 6 (1922), 487-96","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1922.s1-2.487"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r32.2","unstructured":"W.H. Michael, 'Satisfactory Treatment of Malaria', United States Naval Medical Bulletin, 14, 3 (1920), 367-70: 367"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r32.3","unstructured":"Randall M. Packard, A History of Global Health: Interventions into the Lives of Other Peoples (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2016), 20-3"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r32.4","unstructured":"R.B. Williams, 'A Brief Report of the Activities of the Field Hospital, First Brigade, United States Marine Corps, Port-Au-Prince, Haiti, September 4, 1915-September 20, 1916', United States Naval Medical Bulletin, 11, 1 (1917), 107-13."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r98","unstructured":"Ibid., 36."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r59","unstructured":"Ibid., 31. The occupation also advocated vaccination campaigns in response to crisis. For example, in 1920\u201321 it was estimated that approximately one million Haitians were vaccinated against smallpox following an outbreak in 1920, and following that success vaccination was imagined as a means of demonstrating the value of a public health service to the Haitian people. Parsons, op. cit. (note 25), 114."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r28","unstructured":"Ibid., 179."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r25","unstructured":"Robert Percival Parsons, History of Haitian Medicine (New York: Paul B. Hoeber Inc., 1929), 137."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r22","unstructured":"Ibid., 11."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r20","unstructured":"Warwick Anderson , \u2018Excremental Colonialism: Public Health and the Poetics of Pollution\u2019, Critical Inquiry, 21, 3 (1995), 640\u201369."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r93","unstructured":"Pamphile, op. cit. (note 2), 42\u20133."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r48","unstructured":"Ibid., 422."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r54","unstructured":"Ibid., 101."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r11","unstructured":"Ibid.; Charles St John Butler and E. Peterson, \u2018The Public Health Service of Haiti. It\u2019s Origin, Organization and Present System of Administration\u2019, 1926?, folder 1, box 1, FA386b, RG 1.1, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r68","unstructured":"Russell, Sixth Annual Report 1927, op. cit. (note 58), 47\u20138."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r67","unstructured":"Russell, Second Annual Report 1922, op. cit. (note 58), 25."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r4","unstructured":"George Marvin , \u2018Healthy Haiti: Whitewashing the Black Republic: The Changes Accomplished During a Year and a Half of American Administration\u2019, World\u2019s Work, 34, May\u2013October (1917), 33\u201351: 45, 47."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r3","unstructured":"This protectionism was designed to prevent the ownership of land by whites, following the Haitian\u2019s successful revolution in 1804. Renda, op. cit., (note 2), 10."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r42","unstructured":"Allen, op. cit. (note 31)."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r1.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alice Street , Biomedicine in an Unstable Place: Infrastructure and Personhood in a Papua New Guinean Hospital (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014), 22","DOI":"10.1215\/9780822376668"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r1.2","unstructured":"Michel Foucault, 'Society Must Be Defended': Lectures at the Coll\u00e8ge de France, 1975-1976 (New York: Picador, 2003)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r1.3","unstructured":"Joseph-Achille Mbemb\u00e9, 'Necropolitics', trans. Libby Meintjes, Public Culture, 15, 1 (2003), 11-40."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r29","unstructured":"Ibid., 180\u20131."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r76","unstructured":"Butler and Peterson, op. cit. (note 11)."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r57","unstructured":"McLean, op. cit. (note 49), 28."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r95","unstructured":"S. De La Rue et\u00a0al., Haiti: Annual Report of the Financial Adviser-General Receiver for the Fiscal Year October 1930\u2013September 1931 (Port-au-Prince [etc.], 1931), 2."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r23","unstructured":"Marvin, op. cit. (note 4), 39."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r91","unstructured":"Ibid., 20."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r47","unstructured":"Storch, op. cit. (note 45), 420\u20131."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r100.1","unstructured":"Rulx L\u00e9on, 'La Sant\u00e9 Publique En Haiti', PAHO\/WHO Institutional Repository (1937), online: http:\/\/iris.paho.org\/xmlui\/handle\/123456789\/15677"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r100.2","unstructured":"Rulx L\u00e9on, 'La Sant\u00e9 Publique En Haiti', PAHO\/WHO Institutional Repository (1941), online: http:\/\/iris.paho.org\/xmlui\/handle\/123456789\/13610, accessed 25 January 2018."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r79","unstructured":"Ibid., 32."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r87","unstructured":"Russell, op. cit. (note 74), 33."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r60","unstructured":"Lopez, op. cit. (note 56)."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r6","unstructured":"Arthur C. Millspaugh , Haiti Under American Control 1915\u20131930, student edition (Boston, MA: World Peace Foundation, 1931), 1\u201364."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r2","unstructured":"Leon D. Pamphile , Contrary Destinies: A Century of America\u2019s Occupation, Deoccupation, and Reoccupation of Haiti (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2015), xvi; Mary A. Renda, Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of US Imperialism, 1915\u20131940 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 10."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r80","unstructured":"Ibid., 33."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r75","unstructured":"See Vinh-Kim Nguyen et\u00a0al., \u2018Adherence as Therapeutic Citizenship: Impact of the History of Access to Antiretroviral Drugs on Adherence to Treatment\u2019, AIDS, 21 (2007), S31, for a contemporary analysis of the use of pharmaceuticals to gain compliance. It is unclear to what extent one can consider the Haitians\u2019 compliance with American treatments to have been freely made in contrast to the claims made by the US occupation; indeed, faced with the decision between death from disease or chemical \u2018civilisation\u2019 it appears that many chose the latter, sometimes under extremely violent conditions."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r37","unstructured":"Allen, op. cit. (note 31); Butler and Peterson, op. cit., (note 36)."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r66","unstructured":"Butler, op. cit. (note 17); United States and W. Cameron Forbes op. cit. (note 15), 12."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r30","unstructured":"Ibid., 189."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r49","unstructured":"N.T. McLean , \u2018Public Health Problems of the Southern Countries\u2019, The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, s1\u20132, 1 (1922), 25\u201339."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r72","unstructured":"Parsons, op. cit. (note 25), 89."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r26","unstructured":"Ibid., 137."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r89","unstructured":"Russell, op. cit. (note 74), 19."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r69","unstructured":"Butler and Peterson, op. cit. (note 11)."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r52","unstructured":"Parsons, op. cit. (note 25), 176\u201389."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r13","unstructured":"Millspaugh, op. cit. (note 6), 88\u201391; Renda, op. cit. (note 2), 182. Resistance to what was reminiscent of slavery was put down through militarised strategies of repression. The tactics applied could be extremely violent, and included the rape of women or young girls, killing \u2018bandit leaders\u2019 and then parading their bodies tied to doors, or the lynching or torturing of Haitians who dissented; this promoted an atmosphere of casual and quotidian violence against Haitians."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r5.1","unstructured":"Matthew Davidson , 'Empire and Its Practitioners: Health, Development and the US Occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934' (unpublished Master's Thesis: Trent University, 2014)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r5.2","unstructured":"Paul H. Douglas, 'The American Occupation of Haiti II', Political Science Quarterly, 42, 3 (1927), 368-96."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r14","unstructured":"See Renda, op. cit. (note 2), 182. for a discussion of rape and sexual violence; Shearon Roberts, \u2018Then and Now: Haitian Journalism as Resistance to US Occupation and US-Led Reconstruction\u2019, Journal of Haitian Studies, 21, 2 (2015), 241\u201368."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r77","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r83","unstructured":"S. De La Rue et\u00a0al., op. cit. (note 81); S. De La Rue et\u00a0al., Haiti: Annual Report of the Financial Adviser-General Receiver for the Fiscal Year October 1933\u2013September 1934 (Port-au-Prince [etc.], 1934), online: http:\/\/ufdc.ufl.edu\/AA00001157\/00001\/2j, accessed 4 May 2019."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r61","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r46","unstructured":"Allen, op. cit. (note 40), 406."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r27","unstructured":"Ibid., 176."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/9781316771617"},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r17","unstructured":"Charles S. Butler , \u2018Coordination of Medical Problems; Medical Education: Public Health and Hospitals in the Republic of Haiti\u2019, Academic Medicine, 3, 1 (1928), 46\u201358. During the early twentieth century, the term \u2018backwards\u2019, in contrast with \u2018mental defective\u2019, implied that the environmental and social conditions in which someone operated was responsible for their apparent savagery or lack of education rather than implying an inherent and unchangeable defect."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r18","unstructured":"Ibid., 48."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r31","unstructured":"A.H. Allen , \u2018The Problem of Malaria in Marines in Haiti\u2019, United States Naval Medical Bulletin, 18, 1 (1923), 25\u201331: 25."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r92","unstructured":"United States and Pomerene, op. cit. (note 51)."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r82","unstructured":"Hans Schmidt , The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915\u20131934 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995), 130\u20132."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r97","unstructured":"Lopez, op. cit. (note 56), 2249."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r9.1","unstructured":"Ar\u00edstides A. Moll , 'The Pan American Sanitary Bureau: Its Origin, Development and Achievements I', PAHO\/WHO Institutional Repository (1940), 1219-34"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r9.2","unstructured":"Aristides A. Moll, 'The Pan American Sanitary Bureau: Its Origin, Developments and Achievements I\/II', PAHO\/WHO Institutional Repository (1941), 41-6."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r19","unstructured":"R.C. Holcomb , \u2018REAR ADMIRAL CHARLES ST JOHN BUTLER, Medical Corps, United States Navy: An American Pioneer in Tropical Medicine\u2019, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 18, 2 (1945), 185\u201394."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r12","unstructured":"Ibid."},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r7.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Warwick Anderson , Colonial Pathologies: American Tropical Medicine, Race, and Hygiene in the Philippines (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 1","DOI":"10.1215\/9780822388081"},{"key":"#cr-split#-S0025727319000759_r7.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mariola Espinosa, Epidemic Invasions: Yellow Fever and the Limits of Cuban Independence, 1878-1930 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 16.","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226218137.001.0001"},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r56","unstructured":"Patricia J. Lopez , \u2018Clumsy Beginnings: From \u201cModernizing Mission\u201d to Humanitarianism in the US Occupation of Haiti (1915\u201334)\u2019, Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 47, 11 (2015), 2240\u201356."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r63","unstructured":"Parsons, op. cit., (note 25), 90."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r86","unstructured":"Ibid., 89."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r99","unstructured":"L\u00e9on, op. cit. (note 96); Parsons, op. cit. (note 25), 157."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r34","unstructured":"\u2018Abstracts from the Annual Sanitary Report of the First Brigade, United States Marine Corps, Republic of Haiti, for the Year 1922\u2019, United States Naval Medical Bulletin, 18, 4 (1923), 526\u20137: 526."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r64","unstructured":"Ibid.93."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r81","unstructured":"S. De La Rue et\u00a0al., Haiti: Annual Report of the Financial Adviser-General Receiver for the Fiscal Year October 1929\u2013September 1930 (Port-au-Prince [etc.], 1930)."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r16","unstructured":"Michel-Rolph Trouillot , Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2015), 145."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511613128"},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r36","unstructured":"Allen, op. cit. (note 31); C.S. Butler and E. Peterson, \u2018Malaria in Haiti\u2019, United States Naval Medical Bulletin, 25, 2 (1927), 278\u201388."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r50","unstructured":"Ibid., 26."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r8","unstructured":"David McBride , Missions for Science: US Technology and Medicine in America\u2019s African World (New\u00a0Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002), 88."},{"key":"S0025727319000759_r88","unstructured":"Kent C. Melhorn , \u2018Haiti\u2019s Greatest Public Health Problem\u2019, United States Naval Medical Bulletin, 28, 2 (1930), 310\u20132."}],"container-title":["Medical History"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0025727319000759","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,19]],"date-time":"2019-12-19T06:11:19Z","timestamp":1576735879000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0025727319000759\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,19]]},"references-count":115,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]}},"alternative-id":["S0025727319000759"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/mdh.2019.75","relation":{},"ISSN":["0025-7273","2048-8343"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0025-7273","type":"print"},{"value":"2048-8343","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,19]]},"assertion":[{"value":"\u00a9 The Author 2019. Published by Cambridge University Press.\u00a0","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}}]}}