{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T14:24:47Z","timestamp":1785421487609,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779235200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["cambridge.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Med. Hist."],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    After years of focussing on infectious and degenerative illnesses, U.S. public health turned to the problem of accidents. Over the course of the twentieth century, safety practitioners repurposed the models of infectious disease control, risk-factor medicine, and biomechanics to improve the precision of injury data and to guide its applications. The resulting set of frameworks, methods, and practices, collectively referred to as \u2018the epidemiology of accidents\u2019, changed how health professionals analysed injuries but never produced a lasting consensus on appropriate safety interventions. This article uses the understudied history of home accident prevention to explain why mid-twentieth-century public health failed to prioritise injury control and what made home accidents especially intractable. During the 1940s, the American Public Health Association and U.S. Public Health Service collected statistics from communities across the country to determine the causes of home accidents and to inform local safety campaigns. These investigations were comprehensive but nonspecific, seeking to educate families about\n                    <jats:italic>all<\/jats:italic>\n                    the dangers of domestic space. After John Gordon published his influential study on accidents in 1949, this approach shifted from counting cases associated with risky behaviours and conditions to quantifying the extent to which isolable risk factors contributed to injuries. From the 1960s to 1970s, William Haddon changed accident prevention again, defining injuries as \u2018abnormal energy exchanges\u2019 and finding ways to minimise harm when accidents happened. Across these iterations, the epidemiology of accidents tried to identify, classify, quantify, and control the causes of home injuries but fell short of translating research into policy.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/mdh.2026.10066","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T07:40:37Z","timestamp":1779262837000},"page":"1-21","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/policypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The epidemiology of accidents: U.S. home safety and the slippages between methods, data, and applications, 1940\u20131980"],"prefix":"10.1017","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8082-6758","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexander Ian","family":"Parry","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00trqv719","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Rochester Medical Center"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref7","volume-title":"Typhoid Mary: Captive to the Public\u2019s Health","author":"Leavitt","year":"1996"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/4586896"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref21","volume-title":"How Well Do Facts Travel? The Dissemination of Reliable Knowledge","author":"Howlett","year":"2011"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref44","volume-title":"Spreading Germs: Disease Theories and Medical Practice in Britain, 1865\u20131900","author":"Worboys","year":"2000"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/book.3313"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511819766"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226259208.001.0001"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref43","first-page":"364","article-title":"Accident Prevention\u2014A State Health Department\u2019s Responsibility","volume":"64","author":"Beelman","year":"1949","journal-title":"Public Health Reports"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref49","first-page":"384","article-title":"The Home Environment and Accidents","volume":"64","author":"Board","year":"1949","journal-title":"Public Health Reports"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref52","volume-title":"The Tuberculosis Movement: A Public Health Campaign in the Progressive Era","author":"Teller","year":"1988"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40656-021-00445-z"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref1","volume-title":"Accident Research: Methods and Approaches","author":"Haddon","year":"1964"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref82","first-page":"380","article-title":"Reducing Injuries and Their Results: The Scientific Approach","volume":"52","author":"Baker","year":"1974","journal-title":"The Millbank Memorial Fund Quarterly: Health and Society"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.64.4.409"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1163\/9789004418516_006"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9681(72)90019-7"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2011.03698.x"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/book.77088"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref61","volume-title":"Sick Building Syndrome and the Problem of Uncertainty: Environmental Politics, Technoscience, and Women Workers","author":"Murphy","year":"2006"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40621-020-00270-1"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref79","first-page":"7","volume-title":"A Prospectus for the Prevention of Injury: A Report by a Task Force to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service","author":"Goddard","year":"1964"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226049854.001.0001"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref16","volume-title":"Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming","author":"Conway","year":"2011"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref37","volume-title":"The Known Citizen: A History of Privacy in Modern America","author":"Igo","year":"2018"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref69","volume-title":"The Role of Human Factors in Accident Prevention","author":"Freeman","year":"1960"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/jsh\/29.4.817"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref12","volume-title":"Safety First: Technology, Labor, and Business in the Building of American Work Safety, 1870\u20131939","author":"Aldrich","year":"1997"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref11","volume-title":"Dying for Work: Workers\u2019 Safety and Health in Twentieth-Century America","author":"Markowitz","year":"1997"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/tech.2013.0029"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref47","first-page":"1302","article-title":"Epidemiologic Principles Applicable to the Study and Prevention of Child Accidents","volume":"45","author":"McFarland","year":"1955","journal-title":"AJPH"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref78","volume-title":"Unsafe at Any Speed: The Designed-In Dangers of the American Automobile","author":"Nader","year":"1965"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9610(57)90540-8"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref42","first-page":"1531","article-title":"Engineering Aspects of Home Accident Prevention","volume":"39","author":"Kent","year":"1949","journal-title":"AJPH"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5149\/9780807894071_roberts"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref56","volume-title":"The Progress of Experiment: Science and Therapeutic Reform in the United States, 1900\u20131990","author":"Marks","year":"1997"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref6","volume-title":"The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life","author":"Tomes","year":"1998"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/4588135"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref88","volume-title":"A Safe System Guide for Transportation: Sharing This Approach to Lead Your Community to Action","author":"Michael","year":"2023"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref26","volume-title":"Risk: Negotiating Safety in American Society","author":"Mohun","year":"2013"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref50","first-page":"59","volume-title":"Chasing Dirt: The American Pursuit of Cleanliness","author":"Hoy","year":"1994"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226803487.001.0001"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref3","first-page":"78","article-title":"Injury Prevention, Violence Prevention, and Trauma Care: Building the Scientific Base","volume":"60","author":"Sleet","year":"2011","journal-title":"MMWR Supplements"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref62","first-page":"27","volume-title":"San Jose Home Safety Project: A Five-Year Report, 1951\u20131956","author":"Bissell","year":"1956"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref5","volume-title":"Dirt and Disease: Polio before FDR","author":"Rogers","year":"1992"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005373-197203000-00002"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref46","first-page":"1442","article-title":"Epidemiological Approach to Accident Prevention","volume":"38","author":"Press","year":"1948","journal-title":"AJPH"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1963.tb13307.x"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2012.08.017"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.84.4.664"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.26530\/OAPEN_625283"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref35","first-page":"1135","article-title":"Study of Home Accidents: Their Public Health Significance","volume":"31","author":"Armstrong","year":"1941","journal-title":"AJPH"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/pbm.2017.0024"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3221690"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/tech.2015.0059"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0091-7435(75)90053-5"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref34","volume-title":"The Public Health Nurses of Jim Crow Florida","author":"Ardalan","year":"2019"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/4586894"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674038943"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref39","first-page":"869","article-title":"Accident Prevention","volume":"36","author":"Armstrong","year":"1946","journal-title":"AJPH"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.12987\/yale\/9780300169911.001.0001"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref48","first-page":"1","volume-title":"The First Twenty-Five Years: The Story of a Foundation","year":"1955"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref65","volume-title":"Pox: An American History","author":"Willrich","year":"2011"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref23","volume-title":"Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life","author":"Porter","year":"1995"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref67","first-page":"194","volume-title":"A Consumers\u2019 Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America","author":"Cohen","year":"2003"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref8","volume-title":"Public Health and the Risk Factor: A History of an Uneven Medical Revolution","author":"Rothstein","year":"2003"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref30","first-page":"152","article-title":"R\u00f4le of the Health Department in the Prevention of Accidents","volume":"27","author":"Godfrey","year":"1937","journal-title":"AJPH"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4375(92)90018-5"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref36","first-page":"391","article-title":"Accidents in the Home","volume":"41","author":"Haupt","year":"1941","journal-title":"The American Journal of Nursing"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctv7n0c37"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1163\/9789004418516_012"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5749\/9780816675333"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872087201400504"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref77","first-page":"591","volume-title":"Preventive Medicine","author":"Haddon","year":"1967"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM196112212652508"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1525\/9780520341111-002"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref59","volume-title":"The Ghost Map: The Story of London\u2019s Most Terrifying Epidemic\u2014and How It Changed Science, Cities, and the Modern World","author":"Johnson","year":"2006"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref68","volume-title":"Tracking the American Dream: 50 Years of Housing History from the Census Bureau: 1940 to 1990\u2014Current Housing Reports, Series H121\/94\u20131","author":"Devaney","year":"1994"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref19","volume-title":"Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity","author":"Beck","year":"1992"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref70","first-page":"586","article-title":"Mechanical Analysis of Survival in Falls from Heights of Fifty to One Hundred and Fifty Feet,","volume":"2","author":"DeHaven","year":"1942","journal-title":"War Medicine"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref66","volume-title":"Protecting America\u2019s Health: The FDA, Business, and One Hundred Years of Regulation","author":"Hilts","year":"2003"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref55","volume-title":"The Antibiotic Era: Reform, Resistance, and the Pursuit of a Rational Therapeutics","author":"Podolsky","year":"2015"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226081199.001.0001"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref17","volume-title":"Deceit and Denial: The Deadly Politics of Industrial Pollution","author":"Markowitz","year":"2013"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139026185"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref54","volume-title":"The Creation of Antibiotics and the Birth of Modern Medicine","author":"Rosen","year":"2017"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/tech.2025.a956850"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref80","first-page":"2229","article-title":"On the Escape of Tigers: An Ecologic Note","volume":"60","author":"Haddon","year":"1970","journal-title":"AJPH"},{"key":"S0025727326100660_ref33","volume-title":"No Place Like Home: A History of Nursing and Home Care in the United States","author":"Buhler-Wilkerson","year":"2001"}],"container-title":["Medical History"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0025727326100660","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T07:40:52Z","timestamp":1779262852000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0025727326100660\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]]},"references-count":88,"alternative-id":["S0025727326100660"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/mdh.2026.10066","relation":{},"ISSN":["0025-7273","2048-8343"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0025-7273","type":"print"},{"value":"2048-8343","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]]},"assertion":[{"value":"\u00a9 The Author(s), 2026. Published by Cambridge University Press","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}},{"value":"This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike licence (http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the same Creative Commons licence is used to distribute the re-used or adapted article and the original article is properly cited. The written permission of Cambridge University Press or the rights holder(s) must be obtained prior to any commercial use.","name":"license","label":"License","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}},{"value":"This content has been made available to all.","name":"free","label":"Free to read"}]}}