{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T23:04:53Z","timestamp":1793142293656,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,15]],"date-time":"2025-04-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744675200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Biosoc. Sci."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Fluvial flooding is a recurring event in the Aie River basin in Assam, India. On August 14, 2021, floodwater breached a large stretch of embankment in the Bongaigaon District and inundated several villages. Using a cross-sectional design to conduct household surveys in February and March 2022, the study investigates responses six to seven months following the August 2021 flood disasters. The purpose of this study is to determine the prevalence and risk factors of four psychological health outcomes. Being flooded is strongly and adversely associated with each of these mental health outcomes. After adjusting for the potential confounders, the strength of the relationships is reduced to four times (adjusted OR 4.62 [95% CI 2.63\u20138.1]; <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &lt; 0.01) for PTSD, five times (adjusted OR 5.28[95% CI 3.38\u20138.26]; <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &lt; 0.01) for anxiety, and three times (adjusted OR 3.45[95% CI 2.24\u20135.33]; <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &lt; 0.01) for depression, and 21 times for comorbid PTSD, anxiety, and depression (adjusted OR 21.68[95% CI 7.38\u201363.74]; <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &lt; 0.01). The robustness of flood exposure is checked in an extended model. It includes variables that indicate the severity of flooding and various secondary stressors. The present study also explores the effects of \u2018loss stressors\u2019 such as crop loss, workday loss, livestock loss, and damage to infrastructure. Located in a resource-constrained setting, the effects of these factors add value to the study. Longer duration of floodwater in the house premise increases the odds of developing anxiety (adjusted OR 1.69[95% CI 1.04\u20132.75]; <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &lt; 0.05) and depression (adjusted OR 1.9[95% CI 1.15\u20133.12]; <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &lt; 0.05). Similarly, deeper floodwater inside the house increases the odds of depression (adjusted OR 1.87[95% CI 1.07\u20133.28]; <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &lt; 0.05). Among all the \u2018loss\u2019 stressors, damage to houses and the cost of repairing is significantly associated with PTSD (adjusted OR 2.04[95% CI 1.09\u20133.82]; <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &lt; 0.05), depression (adjusted OR 2.17[95% CI 1.22\u20133.87]; <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &lt; 0.01) and comorbid PTSD, anxiety and depression (adjusted OR 2.16[95% CI 1.07\u20134.36]; <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &lt; 0.05).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/s0021932025000136","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,15]],"date-time":"2025-04-15T09:59:46Z","timestamp":1744711186000},"page":"400-428","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Effect of \u2018losses\u2019 and other secondary stressors on the association between flooding and psychological health outcomes: a cross-sectional study in Bongaigaon District, India"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"57","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4925-4007","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Girimallika","family":"Borah","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6735-6157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nandita","family":"Saikia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1080\/13548500903483478","article-title":"The psychological impact of exposure to floods","volume":"15","author":"Mason","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychological Health and Medicine"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e7994","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000007994","article-title":"Comorbidity of post-traumatic stress disorder and anxiety in flood survivors: prevalence and shared risk factors","volume":"96","author":"Dai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4174","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16214174","article-title":"Perceptions of mental health and wellbeing following residential displacement and damage from the 2018 St. John river flood","volume":"16","author":"Woodhall-Melnik","year":"2019","journal-title":"International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1186\/s12887-021-02933-4","article-title":"Screening for post-traumatic stress disorder among adolescents following foodsa comparative study from private and public schools in Kerala, India","volume":"21","author":"Mathew","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC 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(2019) National Health Action Plan on Climate Change and Mental Health, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, https:\/\/ncdc.mohfw.gov.in\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/07\/2-National-Action-Plan-on-climate-change-and-Mental-Health.pdf"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.130.6.548","article-title":"Cyclone tracy and Darwin Evacuees: on the restoratio of the species","volume":"130","author":"Parker","year":"1977","journal-title":"British Journal of Psychiatry"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1842","DOI":"10.18203\/2394-6040.ijcmph20211243","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder and resilience among flood affected farmers of Kerala, India","volume":"8","author":"Jose","year":"2021","journal-title":"International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1093\/epirev\/mxi004","article-title":"Global health impacts of floods: epidemiologic evidence","volume":"27","author":"Ahern","year":"2005","journal-title":"Epidemiolgic Reviews"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2015.04.008","article-title":"An exploration of factors affecting the long term psychological impact and deterioration of mental health in flooded households","volume":"140","author":"Lamond","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environmental Research"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1053\/comp.2002.34632","article-title":"Untangling the psychiatric comorbidity of posttraumatic stress disorder in a sample of flood survivors","volume":"43","author":"McMillen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Comprehensive Psychiatry"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e134","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(17)30047-5","article-title":"Effects of evacuation and displacement on the association between flooding and mental health outcomes: A cross-sectional analysis of UK survey data","volume":"1","author":"Munro","year":"2017","journal-title":"The Lancet Planetary Health"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2018.01.023","article-title":"PTSD and depression in adult survivors of flood fury in Kashmir: the payoffs of social support","volume":"261","author":"Dar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatry Research"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1598","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.22862","article-title":"The mental health of forcibly displaced couples","volume":"35","author":"Mahmood","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Traumatic Stress"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291719000163","article-title":"Integrating mental health and disaster preparedness in intervention: a randomized controlled trial with earthquake and flood-affected communities in Haiti","volume":"50","author":"James","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychological Medicine"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref17","unstructured":"Government of Assam. 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John Willy & Sons."},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0119929","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0119929","article-title":"Flooding and mental health: a systematic mapping review","volume":"10","author":"Fernandez","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLos One"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e031562","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2019-031562","article-title":"Impact of repeat flooding on mental health and health-related quality of life: a cross-sectional analysis of the English National Study of Flooding and Health","volume":"9","author":"French","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1017\/S1049023X1200129X","article-title":"Flood-related work disruption and poor health outcomes among university students","volume":"27","author":"Peek-Asa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prehospital and Disaster Medicine"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.4103\/2347-9019.168571","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in the population of Uttarkashi, Tehri, and Pauri Garhwal India in reference to Uttarakhand flood - June 2013","volume":"3","author":"Srivastava","year":"2015","journal-title":"International Journal of Health System and Disaster Management"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1177\/0020764019846166","article-title":"Psychiatric morbidity in December 2015 flood-affected population in Tamil Nadu, India","volume":"65","author":"Bandla","year":"2019","journal-title":"International Journal of Social Psychiatry"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-11-145","article-title":"Psychosocial impact of the summer 2007 floods in England","volume":"11","author":"Paranjothy","year":"2011","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref43","first-page":"e4f9f1fa9c3cae","article-title":"The effects of flooding on mental health: Outcomes and recommendations from a review of the literatures","volume":"4","author":"Stanke","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS Current"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1017\/dmp.2016.148","article-title":"Relationship between long-term flooding and serious mental illness after the 2011 Flood in Thailand","volume":"11","author":"Yoda","year":"2017","journal-title":"Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0171557","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0171557","article-title":"Long-term psychological outcomes of flood survivors of hard-hit areas of the 1998 Dongting Lake flood in China: prevalence and risk factors","volume":"12","author":"Dai","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLos One"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2016.12.015","article-title":"Incidence and risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder in a population affected by a severe flood","volume":"144","author":"Fontalba-Navas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"S0021932025000136_ref18","unstructured":"Government of India. 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