{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T02:03:15Z","timestamp":1791252195791,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2007,2,28]],"date-time":"2007-02-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1172620800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":2768,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Proc. Nutr. Soc."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Studies in animal models and cell lines show that vitamin A and related retinoids play a major role in immunity, including expression of mucins and keratins, lymphopoiesis, apoptosis, cytokine expression, production of antibody, and the function of neutrophils, natural killer cells, monocytes or macrophages, T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes. Recent clinical trials suggest that vitamin A supplementation reduces morbidity and mortality in different infectious diseases, such as measles, diarrhoeal disease, measles-related pneumonia, human immunodeficiency virus infection and malaria. Immune responses vary considerably during different infections, and the available data suggest that the modulation of immune function by vitamin A may also vary widely, depending on the type of infection and immune responses involved.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/s0029665199000944","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,2,25]],"date-time":"2011-02-25T11:25:07Z","timestamp":1298633107000},"page":"719-727","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":151,"title":["Vitamin A and immunity to viral, bacterial and protozoan infections"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"58","author":[{"given":"R. D.","family":"Semba","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2007,2,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref057","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/icb.1996.88"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/66.3.665","article-title":"Serum retinol concentrations and Schistosoma mansoni intestinal helminths, and malarial parasitemia: a cross-sectional study in Kenyan preschool and primary school children","volume":"66","author":"Friis","year":"1997","journal-title":"American Journal of Clinical Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref011","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(33)80022-9"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref089","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1998.59.115"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref037","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(97)70046-5"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref003","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN19910106"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref023","first-page":"65","article-title":"Vitamin A status, other risk factors and acute respiratory infection morbidity in children","volume":"87","author":"Dudley","year":"1997","journal-title":"South African Medical Journal"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref002","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN19900122"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref090","first-page":"13","article-title":"Enhanced survival by vitamin A supplementation during a retrovirus infection causing murine AIDS","volume":"43","author":"Watson","year":"1988","journal-title":"Life Sciences"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref027","first-page":"45","article-title":"Low doses of recombinant interleukin-2 enhanced delayed type hypersensitivity to PPD in mice infected with Mycobacterium bovis-BCG and fed a diet supplemented with vitamin A acetate","volume":"171","author":"Ferraro","year":"1988","journal-title":"Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Erkrankungen der Atmungsorgane"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref092","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/62.1.143","article-title":"Mortality of infants <; 6 mo of age supplemented with vitamin A: a randomized, double-masked trial in Nepal","volume":"62","author":"West","year":"1995","journal-title":"American Journal of Clinical Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref076","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.0730843"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref066","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0033-3506(97)00042-5"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref046","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1995.1429"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref006","first-page":"160","article-title":"Vitamin A supplements and mortality related to measles: a randomised clinical trial","volume":"323","author":"Barclay","year":"1987","journal-title":"British Medical Journal"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref070","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(93)92478-C"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref010","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.1890280207"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref068","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(94)93056-2"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref091","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1079\/PNS19910035"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref058","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.156.1.9611050"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref055","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/65.1.144","article-title":"Effect of early vitamin A supplementation on cell-mediated immunity in infants younger than 6 mo","volume":"65","author":"Rahman","year":"1997","journal-title":"American Journal of Clinical Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref081","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(96)12019-5","article-title":"Randomised trial of effect of vitamin A supplementation on antibody response to measles vaccine in Guinea-Bissau, west Africa","volume":"350","author":"Stabell","year":"1997","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref071","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(95)92536-8","article-title":"Reduced seroconversion to measles in infants given vitamin A with measles vaccination","volume":"345","author":"Semba","year":"1995","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref017","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.85.8_Pt_1.1076"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref043","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.273.5272.228"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref093","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)02487-8"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref034","first-page":"117","article-title":"Immune responses during measles virus infection","volume":"191","author":"Griffin","year":"1995","journal-title":"Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref030","first-page":"224","article-title":"Vitamin A deficiency in preschool age Congolese children during malaria attacks. Part 2: impact of parasitic disease on vitamin A status","volume":"60","author":"Galan","year":"1990","journal-title":"International Journal of Vitamin and Nutrition Research"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref020","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/11.Supplement_2.S369"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref036","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/tropej\/39.2.89"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref015","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.186.1.39"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref005","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00034989859366"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/123.5.823","article-title":"Vitamin A deficiency impairs some aspects of the host response to influenza A virus infection in BALB\/c mice","volume":"123","author":"Stephensen","year":"1993","journal-title":"Journal of Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref077","first-page":"226","article-title":"The effect of dietary fat and vitamin A on avian tuberculosis in chicks","volume":"84","author":"Solotorovsky","year":"1961","journal-title":"American Review of Respiratory Diseases"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref065","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-4887.1998.tb01643.x"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref022","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-199609000-00009"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref060","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.99.6.808"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(96)12098-5"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1128\/CDLI.5.6.897-901.1998","article-title":"Long-itudinal studies of neutralizing antibody responses to rotavirus in stools and sera of children following severe rotavirus gastroenteritis","volume":"5","author":"Coulson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref051","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0891-5520(05)70325-1"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref073","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114599000379"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/593682"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref044","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(95)70416-7"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2960","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/126.12.2960","article-title":"Vitamin A deficiency has different effects on immunoglobulin A production and transport during influenza A infection in BALB\/c mice","volume":"126","author":"Gangopadhyay","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref079","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195088243.001.0001","volume-title":"Vitamin A Deficiency: Health, Survival, and Vision","author":"Sommer","year":"1996"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref049","first-page":"169","article-title":"High dietary vitamin A (retinyl palmitate) and cellular immune functions in mice","volume":"56","author":"Moriguchi","year":"1985","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref032","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-3879(21)80102-6"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref012","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-199609000-00008"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref080","first-page":"105","article-title":"Nutrition and tuberculosis: effect of some nutritional factors on resistance to tuberculosis","volume":"46","author":"Sriramachari","year":"1958","journal-title":"Indian Journal of Medical Research"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref075","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-2427(90)90067-3"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref056","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/126.3.628","article-title":"Acute respiratory infections prevent improvement of vitamin A status in young infants supplemented with vitamin A","volume":"126","author":"Rahman","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref025","first-page":"840","volume-title":"Abstracts of the 12th World AIDS Conference, Geneva, June 28-July 3, 1998","author":"Fawzi","year":"1998"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref047","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/tropej\/35.3.109"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"890","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/54.5.890","article-title":"Vitamin A supplementation reduces measles morbidity in young African children: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial","volume":"54","author":"Coutsoudis","year":"1991","journal-title":"American Journal of Clinical Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref064","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)64081-0"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2030","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/119.12.2030","article-title":"Interactions between vitamin A deficiency and Plasmodium berghei infection in the rat","volume":"119","author":"Stoltzfus","year":"1989","journal-title":"Journal of Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref053","first-page":"283","article-title":"Effect of vitamin A on diarrhoeal and respiratory complications of measles","volume":"45","author":"Ogaro","year":"1993","journal-title":"Tropical and Geographical Medicine"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref026","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)04197-X"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref083","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/126.1.94","article-title":"Vitamin A deficiency diminishes the salivary immunoglobulin A response and enhances the serum immunoglobulin G response to influenza A virus infection in BALB\/c mice","volume":"126","author":"Stephensen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref040","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.316.7129.422"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref019","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00006454-199203000-00006"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref059","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)61809-0"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref087","first-page":"609","article-title":"Potential interventions for the prevention of childhood pneumonia in developing countries: a meta-analysis of data from field trials to assess the impact of vitamin A supplementation on pneumonia morbidity and mortality","volume":"73","year":"1995","journal-title":"Bulletin of the World Health Organization"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref004","first-page":"415","article-title":"The effect of protein energy malnutrition on morbidity and mortality due to measles at Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya","volume":"69","author":"Alwar","year":"1992","journal-title":"East African Medical Journal"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref048","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/68.5.1095","article-title":"Urinary retinol excretion and kidney function in children with shigellosis","volume":"68","author":"Mitra","year":"1998","journal-title":"American Journal of Clinical Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref063","first-page":"761","article-title":"Risk factors for xerophthalmia in the Republic of Kiribati","volume":"50","author":"Schaumberg","year":"1996","journal-title":"European Journal of Clinical Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref086","first-page":"699","article-title":"Clinical and anatomic study of avitaminosis A among the Chinese","volume":"50","author":"Sweet","year":"1935","journal-title":"American Journal of Diseases of Childhood"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref033","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/bies.950170302"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/40.5.1090","article-title":"Increased risk of respiratory disease and diarrhea in children with preexisting mild vitamin A deficiency","volume":"40","author":"Sommer","year":"1984","journal-title":"American Journal of Clinical Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref069","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/122.1.101","article-title":"Depressed immune response to tetanus in children with vitamin A deficiency","volume":"122","author":"Semba","year":"1992","journal-title":"Journal of Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref054","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archpedi.1996.02170260029004"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref074","first-page":"31","volume-title":"Abstracts of the XVIII International Vitamin A Consultative Group Meeting, Cairo, Egypt","author":"Shankar","year":"1997"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/68.1.187","article-title":"Vitamin A supplementation and severity of pneumonia in children admitted to the hospital in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania","volume":"68","author":"Fawzi","year":"1998","journal-title":"American Journal of Clinical Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref009","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/170.Supplement_1.S15"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref045","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.95.1.270"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref007","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(94)92998-X"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref061","first-page":"297","article-title":"Bordetella pertussis-specific Th1\/Th2 cells generated following respiratory infection or immunization with an acellular vaccine: comparison of the T cell cytokine profiles in infants and mice","volume":"89","author":"Ryan","year":"1997","journal-title":"Developments in Biological Standardization"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref067","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/514235"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/45.4.780","article-title":"Vitamin A deficiency in southern Ethiopia","volume":"45","author":"DeSole","year":"1987","journal-title":"American Journal of Clinical Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref038","first-page":"26","article-title":"Correlation between the kinetics of Th1\/Th2 cells and pathology in a murine model of experimental pulmonary tuberculosis","volume":"89","author":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Pando","year":"1996","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref094","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.158.2.9707102"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1515","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.152.4.1515","article-title":"In vitamin A deficiency multiple mechanisms establish a regulatory T helper cell imbalance with excess Th1 and insufficient Th2 function","volume":"152","author":"Cantorna","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of Immunology"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref085","first-page":"213","article-title":"A longitudinal study on relations of retinol with parasitic infections and the immune response in children of Kikwawila village, Tanzania","volume":"44","author":"St\u00fcrchler","year":"1987","journal-title":"Acta Tropica"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref095","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2064","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/125.8.2064","article-title":"Retinoic acid repletion restores the number of leukocytes and their subsets and stimulates natural cytotoxicity in vitamin A-deficient rats","volume":"125","author":"Zhao","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of Nutrition"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref088","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a114428"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref013","first-page":"375","article-title":"Epidemiology of blindness in Nepal","volume":"63","author":"Brilliant","year":"1985","journal-title":"Bulletin of the World Health Organization"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref042","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199007193230304"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref008","volume-title":"Effectiveness of Vitamin A Supplementation in the Control of Young Child Morbidity and Mortality in Developing Countries. ACC\/SCN State-of-the-Art Nutrition Policy Discussion Paper","author":"Beaton","year":"1993"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref041","first-page":"6","volume-title":"Abstracts of the XVII International Vitamin A Consultative Group Meeting, Guatemala City","author":"Hussey","year":"1996"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref028","first-page":"69","article-title":"Effect of carotene on course of B. tuberculosis infection of mice fed on a vitamin A deficient diet","volume":"29","author":"Finkelstein","year":"1932","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref001","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/10.2.478"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref072","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0271-5317(96)00091-7"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref052","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.315.7107.505"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.26.4.732-738.1988","article-title":"Comparison of serum and mucosal antibody responses following severe acute rotavirus gastroenteritis in young children","volume":"26","author":"Grimwood","year":"1988","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Microbiology"},{"key":"S0029665199000944_ref039","first-page":"1","article-title":"Clinical and parasitological studies on immunity to Plasmodium falciparum malaria in children","volume":"102","author":"H\u00f8gh","year":"1996","journal-title":"Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases"}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the Nutrition Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0029665199000944","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,4]],"date-time":"2024-04-04T15:02:00Z","timestamp":1712242920000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0029665199000944\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1999,8]]},"references-count":95,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,8]]}},"alternative-id":["S0029665199000944"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s0029665199000944","relation":{},"ISSN":["0029-6651","1475-2719"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0029-6651","type":"print"},{"value":"1475-2719","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1999,8]]}}}