{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,26]],"date-time":"2025-10-26T20:35:29Z","timestamp":1761510929236},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2009,4,6]],"date-time":"2009-04-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1238976000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":6336,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Parasitology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1991,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Variations in the amount of water contact made by individuals and in the amount of water contact made at different sites may have significant impacts on patterns of human schistosome infection. Previous studies have reported variations in the rate of water contact and differences in the sites used between age\/sex classes, but there is limited information on variations in <jats:italic>individual<\/jats:italic> water contact behaviour. In this paper we report and analyse observations of essentially all water contacts made over a two week period by all individuals in a rural community in eastern Zimbabwe. The mean rate of water contact was 0.43 contacts\/person\/day. These data were over-dispersed, ranging from zero to 3.3 contacts\/person\/day; 90% of contacts were made by only 37% of the population. Contact rates were related to age (highest in 8 to 10-year-olds) but not sex, with substantial variation unaccounted for by these variables. Age and sex classes differed in types of water-related activities and the time of day of contact. A greater diversity of sites was used by children than by adults and by males than by females. Individual contact rates were correlated with intensities of infection, although the risk of infection per contact was estimated to be highest in 2 to 4-year-old children and higher for males than females. Five contact sites were used during the study period, with more than 50% of contacts occurring at just 2 sites. Different age and sex classes used different sites and there were additional site-related differences in types of activity and the time of day of use. The implications of these water contact patterns for schistosome epidemiology are discussed. In particular the results provide strong quantitative support for control programmes aimed at heavily used sites (e.g. focal mollusciciding) or at the minority of individuals making most water contacts (e.g. targeted chemotherapy).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/s0031182000059874","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,6,5]],"date-time":"2009-06-05T10:25:32Z","timestamp":1244197532000},"page":"363-370","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":56,"title":["Heterogeneities in water contact patterns and the epidemiology of <i>schistosoma haematobium<\/i>"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"103","author":[{"given":"S. K.","family":"Chandiwana","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"M. E. J.","family":"Woolhouse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2009,4,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref028","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.1991.0095"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref017","first-page":"23","article-title":"Human water-contact activities related to the transmission of bilharziasis (schistosomiasis)","volume":"86","author":"Hustings","year":"1983","journal-title":"Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref008","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00034983.1988.11812224"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref023","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00034983.1980.11687351"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref020","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00034983.1986.11811980"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref015","first-page":"3","article-title":"Schistosomiasis among labouring communities in the Gezira irrigated area, Sudan","volume":"85","author":"Fenwick","year":"1982","journal-title":"Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref010","first-page":"587","article-title":"A socioeconomic approach to the control of Schistosoma mansoni in St. Lucia","volume":"54","author":"Dalton","year":"1976","journal-title":"Bulletin of the World Health Organization"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref009","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000060364"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref005","first-page":"8","article-title":"Seasonal patterns in water contact and the influence of water availability on contact activities in two schistosomiasis endemic areas in Zimbabwe","volume":"33","author":"Chandiwana","year":"1987","journal-title":"Central African Journal of Medicine"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref004","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0277-9536(87)90173-0"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref022","first-page":"101","article-title":"A reusable polyamide filter for diagnosis of S. haematobium infection by urine filtration","volume":"76","author":"Mott","year":"1983","journal-title":"Bulletin de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de Pathologie Exotique"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref026","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(84)90283-9"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref018","volume-title":"Schistosomiasis","author":"Jordan","year":"1982"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref024","first-page":"379","volume-title":"The Biology of Schistosomes \u2013 from Genes to Latrines","author":"Wilkins","year":"1987"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref003","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(86)90273-7"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref011","first-page":"417","article-title":"Water contact patterns in relation to Schistosoma haematobium infection","volume":"56","author":"Dalton","year":"1978","journal-title":"Bulletin of the World Health Organization"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref021","first-page":"1","article-title":"Report on the results of the bilharzia mission in Egypt, 1915","volume":"25","author":"Leiper","year":"1915","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref007","first-page":"187","article-title":"Analysis of the dynamics of transmission of human schistosomiasis in the highveld region of Zimbabwe. A review","volume":"39","author":"Chandiwana","year":"1988","journal-title":"Tropical Medicine and Parasitology"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref001","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(78)90290-0"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref014","first-page":"377","article-title":"The behavioural pattern of social and religious water contact activities in the Egypt-49 bilharziasis project area","volume":"35","author":"Farooq","year":"1966","journal-title":"Bulletin of the World Health Organization"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref027","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000059655"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref016","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/349243a0"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref002","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(85)90391-8"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref025","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(87)90273-2"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref019","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0277-9536(83)90297-6"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref012","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(85)90090-2"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref013","first-page":"264","volume-title":"Lecture Notes in Biomathematics","author":"Dietz","year":"1979"},{"key":"S0031182000059874_ref006","first-page":"212","article-title":"Spatial heterogeneity in patterns of human schistosomiasis infection in the Zimbabwe highveld","volume":"34","author":"Chandiwana","year":"1988","journal-title":"Central African Journal of Medicine"}],"container-title":["Parasitology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0031182000059874","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,17]],"date-time":"2019-05-17T15:45:55Z","timestamp":1558107955000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0031182000059874\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1991,12]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1991,12]]}},"alternative-id":["S0031182000059874"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s0031182000059874","relation":{},"ISSN":["0031-1820","1469-8161"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0031-1820","type":"print"},{"value":"1469-8161","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1991,12]]}}}