{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T18:25:10Z","timestamp":1791397510796,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"S1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2009,4,6]],"date-time":"2009-04-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1238976000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":5209,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Parasitology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1995,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>SUMMARY<\/jats:title><jats:p>Whether and how microparasites such as rabies persist in their host populations are among the fundamental questions of infectious disease epidemiology. Rabies is a fatal disease of all mammalian species, but not all mammalian species can maintain the infection as reservoirs. The approach to control depends on which of the affected species do act as reservoirs. Bringing together old and new data, we examine here the role of wild and domestic animals in maintaining rabies in the Serengeti region of Tanzania, presenting our findings in two parts. In Part I, we argue that domestic dogs are the likely reservoirs because: (1) rabies has been continuously present in the dog population since its (re)introduction in 1977, whilst (2) wildlife cases have been very rare over this period, despite intensive study of Serengeti carnivores; (3) outbreaks of rabies in wild canids (jackals) elsewhere in Africa (Zimbabwe) have followed, rather than preceded, outbreaks in the dog population; (4) all viruses isolated from wild carnivores in the Serengeti ecosystem (including the Kenyan Masai Mara) are antigenically and genetically indistinguishable from the typical domestic dog Strain; (5) dog rabies control in the Serengeti between 1958\u201377 apparently eliminated the disease from both dogs and wildlife. Having identified dogs as reservoirs, Part II explores some possible mechanisms of maintenance in dog populations. In theory, infection is more likely to be maintained at higher dog densities, and we provide evidence that rabies is maintained in one district with a dog density &gt; 5\/km<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>, but not in two other districts with densities &lt; 1\/km<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>. Because 5 dogs\/km<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>is much lower than the expected density required for persistence, we go on to investigate the role of atypical infections, showing: (1) from serology, that a substantial proportion of healthy dogs in the Serengeti have detectable serum levels of rabies-specific antibody; (2) from mathematical models that, whilst we cannot be sure what seropositivity means, persistence in low-density dog populations is more likely if seropositives are infectious carriers, rather than slow-incubators or immunes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/s0031182000075806","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,6,5]],"date-time":"2009-06-05T13:37:06Z","timestamp":1244209026000},"page":"S33-S47","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":108,"title":["Maintenance of a microparasite infecting several host species: rabies in the Serengeti"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"111","author":[{"given":"S.","family":"Cleaveland","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"C.","family":"Dye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2009,4,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref012","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0147-9571(88)90039-2"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref074","first-page":"311","volume-title":"Population Dynamics of Rabies in Wildlife","author":"Voigt","year":"1985"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref076","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/10.Supplement_4.S649"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref073","first-page":"38","volume-title":"Annual Report of the Director 1971 and Scientific Report 1972","author":"Veeraraghavan","year":"1973"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref068","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-3527(08)60586-2"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref066","first-page":"19","article-title":"Observations on rabies in Tanzania","volume":"21","author":"Rweyemamu","year":"1973","journal-title":"Bulletin of Epizootic Diseases in Africa"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref063","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(90)90103-L"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9781444314076.ch15"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref061","first-page":"395","article-title":"The bat-eared fox: a prime candidate for rabies vector?","volume":"60","author":"Nel","year":"1993","journal-title":"Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref071","first-page":"399","article-title":"Rabies in bat-eared foxes in South Africa","volume":"60","author":"Thomson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref058","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0450.1992.tb01162.x"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref057","first-page":"367","article-title":"Biology of the black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas with reference to rabies","volume":"60","author":"McKenzie","year":"1993","journal-title":"Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref028","first-page":"451","volume-title":"Serengeti II: Research, Management and Conservation of an Ecosystem","author":"Caro","year":"1995"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref069","first-page":"325","article-title":"Rabies in southern Africa","volume":"60","author":"Swanepoel","year":"1993","journal-title":"Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref083","first-page":"417","article-title":"The yellow mongoose as a rabies vector on the central plateau of South Africa","volume":"78","author":"Zumpt","year":"1982","journal-title":"South African Journal of Science"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref055","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-70060-6_52"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref054","first-page":"351","article-title":"Rabies and wildlife: a conservation problem?","volume":"60","author":"Macdonald","year":"1993","journal-title":"Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref051","first-page":"183","article-title":"Application of immunoperoxidase techniques to formalin-fixed brain tissue for the diagnosis of rabies in southern Africa","volume":"61","author":"Last","year":"1994","journal-title":"Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref067","first-page":"131","volume-title":"Population Dynamics of Rabies in Wildlife","author":"Smith","year":"1985"},{"key":"S0031182000075806_ref048","unstructured":"King A. 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