{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T18:25:36Z","timestamp":1791311136657,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2003,1,10]],"date-time":"2003-01-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1042156800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":435,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Parasitology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2001,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:p><jats:italic>Schistosoma mansoni<\/jats:italic> is one of the most abundant infectious agents of humankind. Its widespread distribution is permitted by the broad geographic range of susceptible species of the freshwater snail genus <jats:italic>Biomphalaria<\/jats:italic> that serve as obligatory hosts for its larval stages. Molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that <jats:italic>Schistosoma<\/jats:italic> originated in Asia, and that a pulmonate-transmitted progenitor colonized Africa and gave rise to both terminal-spined and lateral-spined egg species groups, the latter containing <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>Schistosoma mansoni<\/jats:italic> likely appeared only after the trans-Atlantic dispersal of <jats:italic>Biomphalaria<\/jats:italic> from the Neotropics to Africa, an event that, based on the present African fossil record, occurred only 2\u20135 million years ago. This parasite became abundant in tropical Africa and then entered the New World with the slave trade. It prospered in the Neotropics because a remarkably susceptible and productive host, <jats:italic>B. glabrata<\/jats:italic>, was widely distributed there. Indeed, a snail similar to <jats:italic>B. glabrata<\/jats:italic> may have given rise to the African species of <jats:italic>Biomphalaria<\/jats:italic>. <jats:italic>Schistosoma mansoni<\/jats:italic> has since spread into other Neotropical <jats:italic>Biomphalaria<\/jats:italic> species and mammalian hosts. The distribution of <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic> is in a state of flux. In Egypt, <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic> has nearly completely replaced <jats:italic>S. haematobium<\/jats:italic> in the Nile Delta, and has spread to other regions of the country. A susceptible host snail, <jats:italic>B. straminea<\/jats:italic>, has been introduced into Asia and there is evidence of <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic> transmission in Nepal. Dam and barrage construction has lead to an epidemic of <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic> in Senegal, and the parasite continues its spread in Brazil. Because of competition with introduced aquatic species and environmental changes, <jats:italic>B. glabrata<\/jats:italic> and consequently <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic> have become less abundant on the Caribbean islands. Control of <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic> using praziquantel and oxamniquine has reduced global prevalence but control is difficult to sustain, and <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic> can develop tolerance\/resistance to praziquantel, raising concerns about its future efficacy. Because of legitimate environmental concerns, snail control is unlikely to be an option in future control efforts. Global warming will impact the distribution of <jats:italic>Biomphalaria<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>S. mansoni<\/jats:italic>, but the magnitude and nature of the effects are poorly understood.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/s0031182001007703","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,10,30]],"date-time":"2002-10-30T15:59:52Z","timestamp":1035993592000},"page":"211-228","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":144,"title":["<i>Schistosoma mansoni<\/i> and <i>Biomphalaria<\/i>: past history and future trends"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"123","author":[{"given":"J. A. T.","family":"MORGAN","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"R. J.","family":"DEJONG","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"S. D.","family":"SNYDER","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"G. M.","family":"MKOJI","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"E. S.","family":"LOKER","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2003,1,10]]},"container-title":["Parasitology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0031182001007703","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,7]],"date-time":"2019-05-07T22:33:29Z","timestamp":1557268409000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0031182001007703\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2001,11]]},"references-count":0,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2001,11]]}},"alternative-id":["S0031182001007703"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s0031182001007703","relation":{},"ISSN":["0031-1820","1469-8161"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0031-1820","type":"print"},{"value":"1469-8161","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2001,11]]}}}