{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T20:04:43Z","timestamp":1792008283384,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":119,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,8]],"date-time":"2016-01-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1452211200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.cambridge.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Parasitology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>SUMMARY<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    The archaeological evidence for parasites in the Roman era is presented in order to demonstrate the species present at that time, and highlight the health consequences for people living under Roman rule. Despite their large multi-seat public latrines with washing facilities, sewer systems, sanitation legislation, fountains and piped drinking water from aqueducts, we see the widespread presence of whipworm (\n                    <jats:italic>Trichuris trichiura<\/jats:italic>\n                    ), roundworm (\n                    <jats:italic>Ascaris lumbricoides<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) and\n                    <jats:italic>Entamoeba histolytica<\/jats:italic>\n                    that causes dysentery. This would suggest that the public sanitation measures were insufficient to protect the population from parasites spread by fecal contamination. Ectoparasites such as fleas, head lice, body lice, pubic lice and bed bugs were also present, and delousing combs have been found. The evidence fails to demonstrate that the Roman culture of regular bathing in the public baths reduced the prevalence of these parasites. Fish tapeworm was noted to be widely present, and was more common than in Bronze and Iron Age Europe. It is possible that the Roman enthusiasm for fermented, uncooked fish sauce (garum) may have facilitated the spread of this helminth. Roman medical practitioners such as Galen were aware of intestinal worms, explaining their existence and planning treatment using the humoural theory of the period.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/s0031182015001651","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,7]],"date-time":"2016-01-07T19:00:48Z","timestamp":1452193248000},"page":"48-58","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/policypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":89,"title":["Human parasites in the Roman World: health consequences of conquering an empire"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"144","author":[{"given":"PIERS D.","family":"MITCHELL","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2011.03.031"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.apar.2015.03.003"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02762013000100001"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.apar.2015.05.001"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003598X00065686"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref104","first-page":"69","volume-title":"Sanitation, Latrines and Intestinal Parasites in Past Populations","author":"Taylor","year":"2015"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2011.12.019"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref118","first-page":"631","article-title":"Toilets at Qumran, the Essenes, and the scrolls: new anthropological data and old theories","volume":"22","author":"Zias","year":"2006","journal-title":"Revue de Qumran"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref19","first-page":"232","article-title":"In defense of Garum","volume":"78","author":"Curtis","year":"1983","journal-title":"Classical Journal"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref56","volume-title":"Galen on Diseases and Symptoms","author":"Johnston","year":"2006"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1645\/GE-1178R1.1"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/659307"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119968986"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpp.2013.05.004"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref33","volume-title":"Anglo-Saxon Food and Drink: Production, Processing, Distribution and Consumption","author":"Hagen","year":"2006"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03177148"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref9","first-page":"139","article-title":"Parasites and parasitic diseases in prehistoric human populations in central Europe","volume":"36","author":"Asp\u00f6ck","year":"1999","journal-title":"Helminthologia"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13353-013-0145-1"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2010.03.004"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref117","first-page":"7","article-title":"Case reports on paleopathology: calcified hydatid cysts","volume":"73","author":"Zias","year":"1991","journal-title":"Paleopathology Newsletter"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref116","article-title":"Effect of sanitation on soil-transmitting helminth infection: systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"9","author":"Zeigelbauer","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS Medicine"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2014.05.001"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref95","first-page":"217","article-title":"Recovery of parasite remains from coprolites and latrines: aspects of paleoparasitological technique","volume":"37","author":"Reinhard","year":"1986","journal-title":"Homo"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0305-4403(92)90015-U"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.21031"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1645\/GE-2076.1"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(13)70323-2"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref108","first-page":"171","article-title":"New evidence from a Roman context in Belgium for fish sauce locally produced in northern Gaul","volume":"14","author":"Van Neer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Archaeofauna"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpp.2013.08.003"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.21510"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-4-191"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajhb.1115"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref94","first-page":"311","volume-title":"Modern Environments and Human Health: Revisiting the Second Epidemiological Transition","author":"Reinhard","year":"2014"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref13","first-page":"811","article-title":"Paleoparasitologie: pr\u00e9sumption d'un cas de bilharziose au XVe si\u00e8cle \u00e0 Montb\u00e9liard (Doubs, France)","volume":"318","author":"Bouchet","year":"1995","journal-title":"Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref96","first-page":"1","article-title":"Food, parasites, and epidemiological transitions: a broad perspective","volume":"86","author":"Reinhard","year":"2013","journal-title":"International Journal of Paleopathology"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref91","unstructured":"Polo-Cerd\u00e1 M. , Miquel-Feucht M. and Villala\u00edn-Blanco J. D. (2001). Experimental cribra orbitalia in wistar rats: an etiopathogenic model of porotic hyperostosis and other porotic phenomena. In Proceedings of the XIIIth European Meeting of the Paleopathology Association, Chieti, Italy (ed. La Verghetta M. and Capasso L. ), pp. 253\u2013259. Edigrafital S. p. a., Teramo, Italy."},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref90","volume-title":"Globalisation and the Roman World: World History, Connectivity and Material Culture","author":"Pitts","year":"2015"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1163\/9789004224292","volume-title":"Hippocrates, On the Art of Medicine","author":"Mann","year":"2012"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref69","first-page":"219","volume-title":"Sanitation, Latrines and Intestinal Parasites in Past Populations","author":"Le Bailly","year":"2015"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003349"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref25","unstructured":"Fagan G. G. (2000). Hygiene conditions in Roman public baths. In Cura Aquarum in Sicilia: Proceedings of the 10th International Congress on the History of Water Management and Hydraulic Engineering in the Mediterranean Region (ed. Jansen G. C. M. ), pp. 281\u2013286. Peeters, Leiden, Netherlands."},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref112","first-page":"32","volume-title":"The Environmental Evidence from the Church Street Roman Sewer System","author":"Wilson","year":"1976"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpp.2013.10.001"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref53","unstructured":"Jansen J. and Over H. J. (1966). Observations on helminth infections in a Roman army camp. In Proceedings of the 1st International Congress of Parasitology, Roma, Italy, 1964 (ed. Corradetti A. ) p. 791. Pergamon, Oxford, UK."},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref24","first-page":"26","article-title":"When forest-based hunter-gatherers become sedentary: consequences for diet and health","volume":"57","author":"Dounias","year":"2006","journal-title":"Unasylva"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/gea.21390"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref36","volume-title":"Dying on Foreign Shores: Travel and Mobility in the Late-Antique West","author":"Handley","year":"2011"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3815\/000000007784016520"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00508-010-1433-y"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1163\/ej.9789004171541.i-366","volume-title":"Hippocratic Recipes: Oral and Written Transmission of Pharmacological Knowledge in Fifth- and Fourth-Century Greece","author":"Totelin","year":"2009"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/pastj\/gtr014"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511489570"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref1","first-page":"203","volume-title":"Sanitation, Latrines and Intestinal Parasites in Past Populations","author":"Anastasiou","year":"2015"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref58","volume-title":"Manure Matters: Historical, Archaeological and Ethnographic Perspectives","author":"Jones","year":"2012"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/25.6.545"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref89","first-page":"184","volume-title":"Diseases in Antiquity","author":"Pike","year":"1968"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref60","volume-title":"Biological Evidence from 16\u201322 Coppergate","author":"Kenward","year":"1995"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpp.2013.04.004"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-40.4.585"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref119","first-page":"86","article-title":"Human parasites in archaeological findings","volume":"25","author":"Witenberg","year":"1961","journal-title":"Bulletin of the Israel Exploration Society"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1095-9270.1988.tb00648.x"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref40","unstructured":"Harter S. (2003). Implication de la Pal\u00e9oparasitologie dans l'Etude des Populations Anciennes de la Vall\u00e9e du Nil et du Proche-Orient: Etudes de Cas. Ph.D. thesis. Universit\u00e9 de Riems Champagne-Ardenne, France."},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2003.10.036"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpp.2013.07.004"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02762003000900015"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref35","first-page":"99","volume-title":"Sanitation, Latrines and Intestinal Parasites in Past Populations","author":"Hall","year":"2015"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref113","volume-title":"Bathing in the Roman World","author":"Yeg\u00fcl","year":"2010"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref23","first-page":"103","article-title":"Parasite egg survival and identification from Hibernia Warf, Southwark","volume":"5","author":"De Rouffignac","year":"1985","journal-title":"London Archaeologist"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5149\/northcarolina\/9781469621289.001.0001"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gene.2013.06.017"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0105910"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref52","first-page":"1377","article-title":"Het voorkomen van parasieten in terpmateriaal uit Noordwest Duitsland","volume":"87","author":"Jansen","year":"1962","journal-title":"Tijdschr Diergeneesk"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02762008005000004"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref57","volume-title":"The Structural Sequence and Environmental Remains from Castle Street, Carlisle: Excavations 1981\u20132","author":"Jones","year":"1991"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(14)70794-7"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref6","first-page":"41","volume-title":"Sanitation, Latrines and Intestinal Parasites in Past Populations","author":"Antoniou","year":"2015"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CCOL9780521819541"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref102","volume-title":"A Short History of the Byzantine Empire","author":"Stathakopoulos","year":"2014"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref51","volume-title":"Roman Toilets: Their Archaeology and Cultural History","author":"Jansen","year":"2011"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02762006001000008"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2014.10.023"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref16","volume-title":"Lost to the West: The Forgotten Byzantine Empire that Rescued Western Civilization","author":"Brownworth","year":"2009"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jhmas\/39.4.430"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1128\/9781555815967","volume-title":"Practical Guide to Diagnostic Parasitology","author":"Garcia","year":"2009"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10152-004-0203-5"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0035-9203(03)00011-7"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref34","first-page":"72","article-title":"The fish sauce trader L. Iunius Puteolanus","volume":"80","author":"Haley","year":"1990","journal-title":"Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Papyrologie und Epigraphik"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref97","first-page":"41","article-title":"Human helminthiasis at the Gauls","volume":"30","author":"Rousset","year":"1996","journal-title":"Histoire des Sciences Medicales"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref39","volume-title":"The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia: Crops, Fields, Flocks and Herds","author":"Harris","year":"1996"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref41","first-page":"579","article-title":"Toilet practices among members of the Dead Sea Scroll sect at Qumran (100 BC-68 AD)","volume":"21","author":"Harter","year":"2004","journal-title":"Revue de Qumran"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-4758(90)90223-Q"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2012.12.007"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1645\/0022-3395(2002)088[1019:FEOEIA]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2007.08.011"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2014010"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.21104"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4000\/archeosciences.281"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2012.02.003"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref79","first-page":"5","volume-title":"Sanitation, Latrines and Intestinal Parasites in Past Populations","author":"Mitchell","year":"2015"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2907.1992.tb00126.x"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/525806"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref4","first-page":"121","volume-title":"Sanitation, Latrines and Intestinal Parasites in Past Populations","author":"Anastasiou","year":"2015"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref88","first-page":"222","article-title":"Practice of using human excreta as fertilizer and implications for health in Nghean Province, Vietnam","volume":"37","author":"Phuc","year":"2006","journal-title":"Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.12419"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/498534"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0035-9203(02)90337-8"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref72","volume-title":"The Roman Republic","author":"Lintott","year":"2000"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref45","volume-title":"Latrinae et Foricae: Toilets in the Roman World","author":"Hobson","year":"2009"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref44","volume-title":"Oevres Compl\u00e8tes","author":"Hippocrates","year":"1839"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2011.02.027"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2009.12.029"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref76","volume-title":"The Prince of Medicine: Galen in the Roman Empire","author":"Mattern","year":"2013"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref14","first-page":"404","article-title":"First recovery of Schistosoma mansoni eggs from a latrine in Europe (15th\u201316th centuries)","volume":"88","author":"Bouchet","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of Parasitology"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref43","first-page":"7","volume-title":"Roman Toilets: Their Archaeology and Cultural History","author":"Heirbaut","year":"2011"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-75855-6_13"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpp.2013.05.006"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref61","volume-title":"A Brief History of the Roman Empire","author":"Kershaw","year":"2013"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpp.2011.04.002"},{"key":"S0031182015001651_ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5743\/cairo\/9789774248580.001.0001"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.1017\/s0031182017000798","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,8]],"date-time":"2016-01-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1452211200000}}],"container-title":["Parasitology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0031182015001651","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,1]],"date-time":"2022-06-01T00:36:39Z","timestamp":1654043799000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0031182015001651\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,8]]},"references-count":119,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,1]]}},"alternative-id":["S0031182015001651"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s0031182015001651","relation":{},"ISSN":["0031-1820","1469-8161"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0031-1820","type":"print"},{"value":"1469-8161","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,8]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Copyright \u00a9 Cambridge University Press 2016\u00a0","name":"license","label":"License","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}}]}}