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However, associations could arise through factors that influence mothers' characteristics and behaviour during pregnancy which are inherited by offspring.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"S0033291709005911_sec_a002\"><jats:title>Method<\/jats:title><jats:p>A \u2018prenatal cross-fostering\u2019 design where pregnant mothers are related or unrelated to their child as a result of <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic> fertilization (IVF) was used to disentangle maternally inherited and environmental influences. If links between prenatal stress and offspring outcome are environmental, association should be observed in unrelated as well as related mother\u2013child pairs. Offspring birth weight and gestational age as well as mental health were the outcomes assessed.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"S0033291709005911_sec_a003\" sec-type=\"results\"><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Associations between prenatal stress and offspring birth weight, gestational age and antisocial behaviour were seen in both related and unrelated mother\u2013offspring pairs, consistent with there being environmental links. The association between prenatal stress and offspring anxiety in related and unrelated groups appeared to be due to current maternal anxiety\/depression rather than prenatal stress. In contrast, the link between prenatal stress and offspring attention deficit hyperactivity disorder was only present in related mother\u2013offspring pairs and therefore was attributable to inherited factors.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"S0033291709005911_sec_a004\" sec-type=\"conclusion\"><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>Genetically informative designs can be helpful in testing whether inherited factors contribute to the association between environmental risk factors and health outcomes. These results suggest that associations between prenatal stress and offspring outcomes could arise from inherited factors and post-natal environmental factors in addition to causal prenatal risk effects.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1017\/s0033291709005911","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,5,29]],"date-time":"2009-05-29T10:08:33Z","timestamp":1243591713000},"page":"335-345","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":300,"title":["The links between prenatal stress and offspring development and psychopathology: disentangling environmental and inherited influences"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"40","author":[{"given":"F.","family":"Rice","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"G. 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