{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,18]],"date-time":"2026-04-18T18:20:38Z","timestamp":1776536438982,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,9]],"date-time":"2023-08-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691539200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["cambridge.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Psychol. Med."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec id=\"S0033291723001812_sec_a1\"><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Smoking contributes to a variety of neurodegenerative diseases and neurobiological abnormalities, suggesting that smoking is associated with accelerated brain aging. However, the neurobiological mechanisms affected by smoking, and whether they are genetically influenced, remain to be investigated.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"S0033291723001812_sec_a2\" sec-type=\"methods\"><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Using structural magnetic resonance imaging data from the UK Biobank (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic> = 33 293), a brain age predictor was trained on non-smoking healthy groups and tested on smokers to obtain the BrainAge Gap (BAG). The cumulative effect of multiple common genetic variants associated with smoking was then calculated to acquire a polygenic risk score (PRS). The relationship between PRS, BAG, total gray matter volume (tGMV), and smoking parameters was explored and further genes included in the PRS were annotated to identify potential molecular mechanisms affected by smoking.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"S0033291723001812_sec_a3\" sec-type=\"results\"><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The BrainAge in smokers was predicted with very high accuracy (<jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic> = 0.725, MAE = 4.16). Smokers had a greater BAG (Cohen's <jats:italic>d<\/jats:italic> = 0.074, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &lt; 0.0001) and higher PRS (Cohen's <jats:italic>d<\/jats:italic> = 0.63, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> &lt; 0.0001) than non-smokers. A higher PRS was associated with increased amount of smoking, mediated by BAG and tGMV. Several neurotransmitters and ion channel pathways were enriched in the group of smoking-related genes involved in addiction, brain synaptic plasticity, and some neurological disorders.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec id=\"S0033291723001812_sec_a4\" sec-type=\"conclusions\"><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>By using a simplified single indicator of the entire brain (BAG) in combination with the PRS, this study highlights the greater BAG in smokers and its linkage with genes and smoking behavior, providing insight into the neurobiological underpinnings and potential features of smoking-related aging.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1017\/s0033291723001812","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,9]],"date-time":"2023-08-09T09:10:25Z","timestamp":1691572225000},"page":"7785-7794","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/policypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Associations between polygenic risk scores and accelerated brain 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