{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T12:53:31Z","timestamp":1791464011392,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791417600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":280,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000025","name":"National Institute of Mental Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 MH134039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 MH134039"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000025","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000025","name":"National Institute of Mental Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 MH128371"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 MH128371"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000025","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009633","name":"Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P50 HD105353"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P50 HD105353"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009633","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["cambridge.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Psychol. Med."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"S0033291726106242_sec1\">\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Gene-environment correlations (\n                      <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                      GEs) are often observed for psychiatric traits, including externalizing problems. Some researchers believe\n                      <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                      GEs reflect the effects of offspring genotype on psychosocial environments. Others consider\n                      <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                      GEs to be a nuisance, reflecting effects of confounders, such as population stratification, assortative mating, or parental genotypes. Our study aims to examine whether\n                      <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                      GEs persist when confounding effects are controlled for in a family-based design.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"S0033291726106242_sec2\" sec-type=\"methods\">\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We examined\n                      <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                      GEs between a polygenic score (PGS) for externalizing problems and adolescent psychosocial environments (parent- and child-reported parental relationships, delinquent peer affiliation, and school connectedness) in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. We estimated\n                      <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                      GEs within 777 families (1,589 twins\/full-siblings) and also at the population-level using 7,635 unrelated individuals.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"S0033291726106242_sec3\" sec-type=\"results\">\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                      GEs were observed with parental relationships, delinquent peer affiliation, and school connectedness in the population sample. In family-based analyses,\n                      <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                      GEs with parental relationships persisted at the within-family level. However,\n                      <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                      GE with delinquent peer affiliation was attenuated and non-significant at the within-family level, suggesting the presence of confounding. Analyses regarding school connectedness were inconclusive.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"S0033291726106242_sec4\" sec-type=\"conclusions\">\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      While PGSs are often associated with psychosocial environments, some of these associations may be subject to substantial confounding. Our findings highlight the importance of testing\n                      <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                      GE while controlling for potential confounds in large population-based studies.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1017\/s0033291726106242","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T11:58:33Z","timestamp":1791460713000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/policypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Re-examining externalizing polygenic risks and psychosocial environments: Are gene-environment correlations really that pervasive?"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"56","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5277-8197","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"LiChen","family":"Dong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01y2jtd41","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Wisconsin-Madison"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01y2jtd41","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Wisconsin-Madison"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01y2jtd41","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Wisconsin-Madison"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8031-7216","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James J.","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01y2jtd41","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Wisconsin-Madison"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01y2jtd41","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Wisconsin-Madison"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01y2jtd41","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Wisconsin-Madison"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0033291726106242_r40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12094"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg2813"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aan6877"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.13607"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10519-023-10139-w"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-024-02716-0"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/add.70163"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-09718-5"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2008.554"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1948550618784890"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.13071"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a039552"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r46","first-page":"25","volume-title":"Antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A developmental analysis and model for intervention","author":"Patterson","year":"2002"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291714001445"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-022-02016-x"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291713001086"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0000109"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-14395-4"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/21677026241260260"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01071314"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-023-01024-5"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2016.07.007"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579407000508"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1847"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-014-0168-x"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0026802"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r45","volume-title":"Mplus user\u2019s guide","author":"Muth\u00e9n","year":"1998"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0000295"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r8","volume-title":"Polygenic scores (PGSs) in the national longitudinal study of adolescent to adult health (add health) \u2013 Release 2","author":"Braudt","year":"2020"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2024.101486"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1011242"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0001247"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/abn0000546"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291721005080"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.childyouth.2017.08.011"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579422000700"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jora.12270"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r55","first-page":"537","article-title":"Externalizing disorders and environmental risk: Mechanisms of gene-environment interplay and strategies for intervention","volume":"11","author":"Samek","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clinical Practice (London, England)"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/fam0000805"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.13652"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-843X.111.3.411"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/21677026261447280"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/thg.2012.137"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0034205"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10826-016-0375-z"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adolescence.2017.08.002"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-021-00908-3"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2009.06.008"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-015-0288-y"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10519-021-10067-7"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-019-00517-2"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291706009524"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jora.12053"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyz115"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291713000627"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2010.11.011"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.61.9.922"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/519795"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/7854_2019_120"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579421001772"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.21529"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2019.06.006"},{"key":"S0033291726106242_r32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579412000934"}],"container-title":["Psychological Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S0033291726106242","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T11:58:35Z","timestamp":1791460715000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S0033291726106242\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"references-count":63,"alternative-id":["S0033291726106242"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s0033291726106242","relation":{},"ISSN":["0033-2917","1469-8978"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0033-2917","type":"print"},{"value":"1469-8978","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"assertion":[{"value":"\u00a9 The Author(s), 2026. Published by Cambridge University Press","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}},{"value":"This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and reproduction, provided the original article is properly cited.","name":"license","label":"License","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and Licensing"}},{"value":"This content has been made available to all.","name":"free","label":"Free to read"}],"article-number":"e325"}}