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We present explicit expressions for the asymptotic bias of these estimates. We show theoretically that nonparametric smoothing over time is robust to low frequency contamination. Nonstationarity can have consequences for both the size and power of HAR tests. Under the null hypothesis there are larger size distortions than when data are stationary. Under the alternative hypothesis, existing LRV estimators tend to be inflated and HAR tests can exhibit dramatic power losses. Our theory indicates that long bandwidths or fixed-\n                    <jats:italic>b<\/jats:italic>\n                    HAR tests suffer more from low frequency contamination relative to HAR tests based on HAC estimators, whereas recently introduced double kernel HAC estimators do not suffer from this problem. We present second-order Edgeworth expansions under nonstationarity about the distribution of HAC and DK-HAC estimators and about the corresponding\n                    <jats:italic>t<\/jats:italic>\n                    -test in the regression model. The results show that the distortions in the rejection rates can be induced by time variation in the second moments even when there is no break in the mean.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/s026646662400032x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]],"date-time":"2024-12-27T03:11:09Z","timestamp":1735269069000},"page":"294-335","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["THEORY OF LOW FREQUENCY CONTAMINATION FROM NONSTATIONARITY AND MISSPECIFICATION: CONSEQUENCES FOR HAR INFERENCE"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"42","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1088-4802","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Casini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Rome Tor Vergata"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-5291-7360","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Taosong","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hunan University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pierre","family":"Perron","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Boston University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"S026646662400032X_r22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeconom.2024.105794"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0262.00366"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2998540"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3982\/ECTA15404"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/07350015.2015.1093948"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/003465304323023886"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0262.00128"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeconom.2022.05.001"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijforecast.2023.06.002"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2297912"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/07350015.2014.931238"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0266466605050085"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1257\/jel.51.4.1120"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2297109"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/07474938.2023.2178138"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2951574"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10629360600569394"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/07350015.2018.1506926"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0262.2006.00718.x"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-economics-080614-115338"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1912559"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeconom.2007.02.001"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeconom.2017.02.003"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1368-423X.2012.00390.x"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3982\/ECTA11684"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r11","volume-title":"Time series data analysis and theory","author":"Brillinger","year":"1975"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeconom.2024.105811"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1214\/aos\/1176344134"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1198\/jbes.2009.06171"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/07350015.2019.1641410"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeconom.2020.05.020"},{"key":"S026646662400032X_r19","unstructured":"Casini, A. , & Perron, P. 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