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This study compared vocabulary trajectories in Italian (societal language) with normative data and investigated environmental factors related to vocabulary development in 83 toddlers (49% girls) from equivalent lowincome monolingual (28) and bilingual immigrant (55) families, from 18 to 36 months. Childcare teachers assessed vocabulary every 6 months using the Italian MacArthur\u2013Bates Communicative Development Inventory (CDI). Parents reported information about environmental factors. Results based on a simulation approach showed that, at each assessment time, the participants\u2019 median vocabulary scores were lower than normative data from the CDI. Mixed models considering environmental factors revealed that bilinguals\u2019 vocabulary in Italian was lower than monolinguals\u2019 from 18 to 30 but not at 36\u00a0months. In both groups, maternal education and home language activities positively predicted vocabulary from 18 to 36\u00a0months.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/s030500092610052x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T02:40:13Z","timestamp":1773196813000},"page":"1-25","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/policypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Lexical Trajectories in Toddlers from Low-Income Bilingual Immigrant and Monolingual Families in Italy"],"prefix":"10.1017","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9130-459X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Florit","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/039bp8j42","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of 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