{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T17:53:26Z","timestamp":1791395606415,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":89,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,14]],"date-time":"2025-07-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752451200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":194,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["CNS Spectr."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Stimulants that act on the central nervous system have been used since antiquity for ritual and other uses. Organic chemistry techniques, especially those developed in Germany in the late 1800s, resulted in the isolation and structural determination of several important stimulants. Synthetic pathways for amphetamine and related stimulants were developed in the first half of the 19th century, and these new drugs were widely marketed. Awareness of abuse potential emerged soon after but was contested. Stimulants have been used to counteract fatigue and promote wakefulness during military operations, as well as to treat sleep disorders, since the 1930s. Methylphenidate was approved to treat children with behavioral problems in 1962, predating the recognition of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Stimulant abuse became a political concern in the post-war period, initially with the use of \u201cpep-pills\u201d by long-haul truck drivers and later as drug dealing became common in night clubs, with new laws limiting availability passed in the early 1960s. They have also been used to increase athletic and cognitive performance. Stimulants are still first-line therapies for ADHD and some sleep disorders; however, newer-generation drugs have been developed with better safety profiles and lower abuse potential. Illicit stimulant use continues to be common in many countries.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/s1092852925100357","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,14]],"date-time":"2025-07-14T03:14:12Z","timestamp":1752462852000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Central nervous system stimulants in recreational and medical use"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"30","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7918-4636","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Seetal","family":"Dodd","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Deakin University"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01ej9dk98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"The University of Melbourne"},{"name":"Barwon Health"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7929-1511","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura","family":"Ospina-Pinillos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03etyjw28","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Pontificia Universidad Javeriana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9830-5392","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John S.","family":"Markowitz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02y3ad647","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"University of Florida"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"S1092852925100357_r50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.5437.739"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003598X00067004"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-019-01123-y"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1968.03140140029006"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/17512433.2020.1796636"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40501-023-00307-4"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r27","unstructured":"27. American Psychiatric Association. DSM-II: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 2nd ed. 1968."},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r29","unstructured":"29. American Psychiatric Association . DSM-III-R. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders . 3rd ed. Revised. 1987."},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-002-1262-4"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cber.188702001142"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2013.0074"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r55","first-page":"3","article-title":"Use of cognitive enhancers: methylphenidate and analogs","volume":"23","author":"Carlier","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2018.05.027"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1592\/phco.23.12.1281.32697"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.131534"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.disamonth.2011.09.004"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1985.03360070084028"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r89","unstructured":"89. Currey, M . Auden, Sartre, Graham Greene, Ayn Rand: They loved amphetamines. Slate, 2013. Accessed 10 April 2025. https:\/\/slate.com\/culture\/2013\/04\/auden-sartre-graham-greene-ayn-rand-they-loved-amphetamines.html"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881113482532"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/add.14767"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/dta.2161"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12402-010-0045-8"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/0976-500X.149149"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2012.07.009"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2007.110593"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.118.248120"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1039856217695702"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r41","volume-title":"The Guardian","author":"Burkeman","year":"2003"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0039-6257(85)90154-7"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0957154X06075782"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r5","first-page":"29a","article-title":"Research of ingredients in Ephedra herb","author":"Nagai","year":"1892","journal-title":"J Chem Soc Jpn (Tokyo Kagakukaishi)"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.8b00117"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2013.09.001"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.v69n0112"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1358\/dot.2006.42.10.1025701"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2020.102982"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2165\/11203290-000000000-00000"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16081067"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.94.3.577"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/jme.2009.030882"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ardp.18551320208"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1937.02780070012004"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r84","unstructured":"84. Redd, W . Vin Mariani \u2014 The Cocaine-Laced Wine Loved by Popes, Thomas Edison, and Ulysses S. Grant, AllThatsInteresting.com. January 31, 2018. Accessed April 7, 2025, https:\/\/allthatsinteresting.com\/vin-mariani."},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2045125320967197"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.9740\/mhc.n183949"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1077(199711\/12)12:6<527::AID-HUP932>3.0.CO;2-U"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.apha.2023.10.006","article-title":"Modafinil, an atypical CNS stimulant?","volume":"99","author":"Hersey","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv Pharmacol"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2021.113754"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2017.0071"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-021-01202-9"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r28","volume-title":"DSM-III, Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders","year":"1980"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0206100"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1527-3458.1999.tb00100.x"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3565(25)07335-5"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2018.02.001"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.v64n0911"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-2999(79)90033-5"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1215\/15476715-2801097"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/17512433.2023.2279192"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40794-019-0095-7"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-27883-4_12"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-016-4212-2"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004714-199908000-00013"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1092852921000328"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r73","first-page":"e36189","article-title":"A systematic review of abuse or overprescription of bupropion in American Prisons and a synthesis of case reports on bupropion abuse in American Prison and non-prison systems","volume":"15","author":"Aikoye","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2011.394"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.focus.130302"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.6b00199"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.23m14934"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2005.04.003"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/070674379003500102"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.5388.925"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/FBP.0b013e3280143226"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r42","unstructured":"42. Henley, J . Captagon: the amphetamine fuelling Syria\u2019s civil war. The Guardian. 2014, Jan 14. https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/world\/shortcuts\/2014\/jan\/13\/captagon-amphetamine-syria-war-middle-east."},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jps.2600500611"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3357\/AMHP.6072.2022"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ptr.1337"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r45","unstructured":"45. World Anti-Doping Agency. The 2025 Prohibited List. Montreal: WADA. https:\/\/www.wada-ama.org. 2025."},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r19","volume-title":"IEEE\/ACM 45th International Conference on Software Engineering","author":"Newman","year":"2023"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.56.12.1073"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2019-316928"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08897077.2019.1700584"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ardp.18601530202"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2013.04.028"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r39","volume-title":"Killer High: A History of War in Six Drugs","author":"Andreas","year":"2020"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)75148-8"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-9422(97)00240-9"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.8b00147"},{"key":"S1092852925100357_r46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.8b00137"}],"container-title":["CNS Spectrums"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S1092852925100357","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,7]],"date-time":"2025-10-07T15:58:21Z","timestamp":1759852701000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S1092852925100357\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"references-count":89,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025]]}},"alternative-id":["S1092852925100357"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s1092852925100357","relation":{},"ISSN":["1092-8529","2165-6509"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1092-8529","type":"print"},{"value":"2165-6509","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"article-number":"e52"}}