{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T11:43:26Z","timestamp":1791287006082,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":178,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2008,3,19]],"date-time":"2008-03-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1205884800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.cambridge.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Anim. Health. Res. Rev."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2008,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>West Nile virus (WNV) is a flavivirus that is maintained in a bird\u2013mosquito transmission cycle. Humans, horses and other non-avian vertebrates are usually incidental hosts, but evidence is accumulating that this might not always be the case. Historically, WNV has been associated with asymptomatic infections and sporadic disease outbreaks in humans and horses in Africa, Europe, Asia and Australia. However, since 1994, the virus has caused frequent outbreaks of severe neuroinvasive disease in humans and horses in Europe and the Mediterranean Basin. In 1999, WNV underwent a dramatic expansion of its geographic range, and was reported for the first time in the Western Hemisphere during an outbreak of human and equine encephalitis in New York City. The outbreak was accompanied by extensive and unprecedented avian mortality. Since then, WNV has dispersed across the Western Hemisphere and is now found throughout the USA, Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean, and parts of Central and South America. WNV has been responsible for &gt;27,000 human cases, &gt;25,000 equine cases and hundreds of thousands of avian deaths in the USA but, surprisingly, there have been only sparse reports of WNV disease in vertebrates in the Caribbean and Latin America. This review summarizes our current understanding of WNV with particular emphasis on its transmission dynamics and changing epidemiology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/s1466252307001430","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2008,3,19]],"date-time":"2008-03-19T11:48:52Z","timestamp":1205927332000},"page":"71-86","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/policypage","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":117,"title":["Transmission dynamics and changing epidemiology of West Nile virus"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Bradley J.","family":"Blitvich","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2008,3,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2003.68.695","article-title":"Alteration of clinical outcome and histopathology of yellow fever virus infection in a hamster model by previous infection with heterologous flaviviruses","volume":"68","author":"Xiao","year":"2003","journal-title":"The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref175","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0704.017420"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref174","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1637\/0005-2086(2007)051[0125:WNVAPI]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref173","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0704.017407"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref172","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2006.07.016"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref171","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2004.225.84"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref170","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-004-0463-z"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref168","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/42.1.57"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref165","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2000.62.413"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref164","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)03538-7"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref160","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/431153"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2005.72.320","article-title":"Persistent shedding of West Nile virus in urine of experimentally infected hamsters","volume":"72","author":"Tonry","year":"2005","journal-title":"The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref159","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0803.010238"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref158","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-004-0478-5"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref157","first-page":"179","article-title":"Arbovirus surveillance in Rhode Island: assessing potential ecologic and climatic correlates","volume":"19","author":"Takeda","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref156","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0907.020816"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref151","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.39.4.1264-1271.2001"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref150","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/42.2.134"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1617","DOI":"10.1086\/518281","article-title":"The long-term outcomes of human West Nile virus infection","volume":"44","author":"Sejvar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clinical Infectious Diseases"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2005.72.622","article-title":"Serologic evidence of exposure of wild mammals to flaviviruses in the central and eastern United States","volume":"72","author":"Root","year":"2005","journal-title":"The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/43.2.309"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref136","first-page":"254","volume-title":"Epidemiology and Control of Mosquito-borne Arboviruses in California, 1943\u20131987","author":"Reisen","year":"1990"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1004.030465"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref132","first-page":"1396","article-title":"Western equine encephalomyelitis in horses in the Northern Red River Valley, 1975","volume":"170","author":"Potter","year":"1977","journal-title":"Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0701.010118"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/153036603765627433"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0704.017401"},{"key":"S1466252307001430_ref127","first-page":"435","article-title":"Epidemiology of West Nile virus. 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