{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T00:12:06Z","timestamp":1793059926193,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,7]],"date-time":"2024-11-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1730937600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":311,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"S2045796024000623_sec1a\">\n                    <jats:title>Aims<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>At the basis of many important research questions is causality \u2013 does X causally impact Y? For behavioural and psychiatric traits, answering such questions can be particularly challenging, as they are highly complex and multifactorial. \u2018Triangulation\u2019 refers to prospectively choosing, conducting and integrating several methods to investigate a specific causal question. If different methods, with different sources of bias, all indicate a causal effect, the finding is much less likely to be spurious. While triangulation can be a powerful approach, its interpretation differs across (sub)fields and there are no formal guidelines. Here, we aim to provide clarity and guidance around the process of triangulation for behavioural and psychiatric epidemiology, so that results of existing triangulation studies can be better interpreted, and new triangulation studies better designed.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"S2045796024000623_sec2b\">\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We first introduce the concept of triangulation and how it is applied in epidemiological investigations of behavioural and psychiatric traits. Next, we put forth a systematic step-by-step guide, that can be used to design a triangulation study (accompanied by a worked example). Finally, we provide important general recommendations for future studies.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"S2045796024000623_sec3c\">\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>While the literature contains varying interpretations, triangulation generally refers to an investigation that assesses the robustness of a potential causal finding by explicitly combining different approaches. This may include multiple types of statistical methods, the same method applied in multiple samples, or multiple different measurements of the variable(s) of interest. In behavioural and psychiatric epidemiology, triangulation commonly includes prospective cohort studies, natural experiments and\/or genetically informative designs (including the increasingly popular method of Mendelian randomization). The guide that we propose aids the planning and interpreting of triangulation by prompting crucial considerations. Broadly, its steps are as follows: determine your causal question, draw a directed acyclic graph, identify available resources and samples, identify suitable methodological approaches, further specify the causal question for each method, explicate the effects of potential biases and, pre-specify expected results. We illustrated the guide\u2019s use by considering the question: \u2018Does maternal tobacco smoking during pregnancy cause offspring depression?\u2019.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"S2045796024000623_sec4d\">\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In the current era of big data, and with increasing (public) availability of large-scale datasets, triangulation will become increasingly relevant in identifying robust risk factors for adverse mental health outcomes. Our hope is that this review and guide will provide clarity and direction, as well as stimulate more researchers to apply triangulation to causal questions around behavioural and psychiatric traits.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1017\/s2045796024000623","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,7]],"date-time":"2024-11-07T03:32:40Z","timestamp":1730950360000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["A guide for planning triangulation studies to investigate complex causal questions in behavioural and psychiatric research"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"33","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4370-3390","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorien L.","family":"Treur","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eva","family":"Lukas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hannah 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