{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T02:06:16Z","timestamp":1788833176047,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]],"date-time":"2025-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742947200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":84,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n\t  <jats:sec id=\"S2045796025000162_sec1a\">\n\t    <jats:title>Aims<\/jats:title>\n\t    <jats:p>Mental health problems in adolescence are increasingly prevalent and have tremendous impacts on life-long health and mortality. Although household poverty is a known risk factor for adolescent mental health, evidence of the timing hypothesis is scarce. We aimed to examine the longitudinal associations of poverty across childhood with mental health in adolescence, focusing on the timing of exposure.<\/jats:p>\n\t  <\/jats:sec>\n\t  <jats:sec id=\"S2045796025000162_sec2b\">\n\t    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n\t    <jats:p>We used the data of 5,671 children from a Japanese population-based longitudinal cohort, which recruited the first graders (aged 6\u20137 years) and followed biannually until eighth grade (aged 13\u201314 years) in Adachi, Tokyo. Household poverty was defined as households having any of the following experiences: annual income less than Japanese yen 3 million, payment difficulties and material deprivations, measured in first, second, fourth, sixth and eighth grades. Adolescent mental health included parent-report internalizing and externalizing problems (the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire), self-report depression (the Patient Health Questionnaire-9) and self-esteem (the Japanese version Children\u2019s Perceived Competence Scale) in eighth grade. We applied g-estimation of structural nested mean modelling to account for time-varying confounders.<\/jats:p>\n\t  <\/jats:sec>\n\t  <jats:sec id=\"S2045796025000162_sec3c\">\n\t    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n\t    <jats:p>If adolescents were exposed to household poverty at any grade across childhood, on average, they would report more severe depressive symptoms (\u03c8 = 0.32 [95% CI 0.13; 0.51]) and lower self-esteem (\u03c8 = \u22120.41 [\u22120.62; \u22120.21]) in eighth grade. There were also average associations of household poverty at any grade with more internalizing (\u03c8 = 0.19 [0.10; 0.29]) and externalizing problems (\u03c8 = 0.10 [0.002; 0.19]). Although the associations between household poverty and mental health were stronger in younger ages (e.g., poverty in the second grade \u2192 depression: \u03c8 = 0.54 [\u22120.12; 1.19] vs. poverty in the eighth grade \u2192 depression: \u03c8 = \u22120.01 [\u22120.66; 0.64]), overlapping 95% CIs indicated no statistically significantly different associations by the timing of exposure.<\/jats:p>\n\t  <\/jats:sec>\n\t  <jats:sec id=\"S2045796025000162_sec4d\">\n\t    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n\t    <jats:p>We found the average effect of exposure to household poverty at any grade on mental health outcomes in eighth grade, failing to support the timing hypothesis. The findings indicate that the effects of household poverty accumulate over time in childhood and impact adolescent mental health (cumulative hypothesis) rather than the effects differ by the timing of exposure. While cumulative effects suggest a persistent intervention in poor households across childhood, we highlight intervention at any timing in childhood may be effective in alleviating adolescent mental health problems.<\/jats:p>\n\t  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1017\/s2045796025000162","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]],"date-time":"2025-03-26T11:20:49Z","timestamp":1742988049000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Timing of exposure to household poverty and adolescent mental health problems"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"34","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9091-7477","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Y.","family":"Koyama","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A.","family":"Isumi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1074-3954","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"T.","family":"Fujiwara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.35237","article-title":"Unconditional cash transfers and maternal assessments of children\u2019s health, nutrition, and sleep: a randomized clinical trial","volume":"6","author":"Sperber","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Network Open"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/abn0000041"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2024.05.008","article-title":"The biological embedding of social adversity: how adolescent housing insecurity impacts inflammation over time","volume":"119","author":"Keen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain, Behavior, and Immunity"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(19)30399-2"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-024-02461-3"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2009.12.001"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1177\/2167702613501496","article-title":"Childhood poverty, cumulative risk exposure, and mental health in emerging adults","volume":"2","author":"Evans","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clinical Psychological Science"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1162\/0898929042304796","article-title":"Sensitive periods in the development of the brain and behavior","volume":"16","author":"Knudsen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2009.10.002"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyn229"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aay0214"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2021.2482"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01545.x","article-title":"The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: a research note","volume":"38","author":"Goodman","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-6171.2008.00166.x","article-title":"Poverty and adolescent mental health","volume":"22","author":"Dashiff","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-021-01639-6","article-title":"Mechanisms of neuroplasticity linking early adversity to depression: developmental considerations","volume":"11","author":"Ho","year":"2021","journal-title":"Translational Psychiatry"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2017-017030","article-title":"Economic volatility in childhood and subsequent adolescent mental health problems: a longitudinal population-based study of adolescents","volume":"7","author":"B\u00f8e","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1353\/obs.2022.0003","article-title":"gesttools: general purpose G-estimation in R","volume":"8","author":"Tompsett","year":"2022","journal-title":"Observational Studies"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref18","volume-title":"Comprehensive Survey of Living Conditions, 2022","year":"2022"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.1037\/a0038498","article-title":"The validity of the multi-informant approach to assessing child and adolescent mental health","volume":"141","author":"De Los Reyes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref2","unstructured":"Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (2022) 2022 National Healthcare Quality and Disparities Report . Rockville, MD: AHRQ Pub. https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK587174\/ (Accessed 07 February 2025)."},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1719","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2009.180943","article-title":"Family poverty over the early life course and recurrent adolescent and young adult anxiety and depression: a longitudinal study","volume":"100","author":"Najman","year":"2010b","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref53","first-page":"1","article-title":"mice: multivariate imputation by chained equations in R","volume":"45","author":"van Buuren S","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2017.01.039","article-title":"Early adolescence behavior problems and timing of poverty during childhood: a comparison of lifecourse models","volume":"177","author":"Mazza","year":"2017","journal-title":"Social Science and Medicine"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1129640"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2020-049702"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191117721741"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1367493513519295"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04554-y","article-title":"Brain charts for the human lifespan","volume":"604","author":"Bethlehem","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S2045796015001158"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/s13034-018-0241-4","article-title":"Children\u2019s Perceived Competence Scale: reevaluation in a population of Japanese elementary and junior high school students","volume":"12","author":"Nagai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1002\/mpr.257","article-title":"The performance of the Japanese version of the K6 and K10 in the World Mental Health Survey Japan","volume":"17","author":"Furukawa","year":"2008","journal-title":"International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.2188\/jea.JE20190177","article-title":"Adachi Child Health Impact of Living Difficulty (A-CHILD) study: research protocol and profiles of participants","volume":"31","author":"Ochi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Epidemiology"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1111\/pcn.13148","article-title":"Distributional patterns of item responses and total scores of the Patient Health Questionnaire for Adolescents in a general population sample of adolescents in Japan","volume":"74","author":"Adachi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-010-9434-x","article-title":"When to use broader internalising and externalising subscales instead of the hypothesised five subscales on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ): data from British parents, teachers and children","volume":"38","author":"Goodman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2020.09.003","article-title":"Sensitive periods in human development: charting a course for the future","volume":"36","author":"Gabard-Durnam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470316696","volume-title":"Multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys","volume":"81","author":"Rubin","year":"1987"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-52002-9.00013-9","article-title":"Psychiatric rating scales","volume":"106","author":"Maust","year":"2012","journal-title":"Handbook of Clinical Neurology"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1007\/s10567-023-00459-y","article-title":"Child and adolescent psychopathology and subsequent harmful behaviors associated with premature mortality: a selective review and future directions","volume":"26","author":"Yu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2022.02.011"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref42","volume-title":"R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing","year":"2023"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291702006074"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000000864"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2023.5051"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2018.10.023"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2007.12.003"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1054-139X(01)00333-0"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-devpsych-120221-033623"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/7854_2021_280"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)02716-1"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1007\/s11121-014-0513-z","article-title":"Assessing the generalizability of randomized trial results to target populations","volume":"16","author":"Stuart","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prevention Science"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2023.03.011","article-title":"Childhood socioeconomic status and the pace of structural neurodevelopment: accelerated, delayed, or simply different?","volume":"27","author":"Rakesh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyw323"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref5","first-page":"697","volume-title":"Handbook of the Economics of Education","author":"Cunha","year":"2006"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1596\/1813-9450-10525","volume-title":"Global Trends in Child Monetary Poverty according to International Poverty Lines","author":"Salmeron-Gomez","year":"2023"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2018-316702","article-title":"Poverty dynamics and health in late childhood in the UK: evidence from the Millennium Cohort Study","volume":"104","author":"Lai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Archives of Disease in Childhood"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2017.12.004","article-title":"Timing of poverty in childhood and adolescent health: evidence from the US and UK","volume":"197","author":"Green","year":"2018","journal-title":"Social Science and Medicine (1982)"},{"key":"S2045796025000162_ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-021-01161-7"}],"container-title":["Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S2045796025000162","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]],"date-time":"2025-03-26T11:22:22Z","timestamp":1742988142000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S2045796025000162\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"references-count":57,"alternative-id":["S2045796025000162"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/s2045796025000162","relation":{},"ISSN":["2045-7960","2045-7979"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2045-7960","type":"print"},{"value":"2045-7979","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"article-number":"e22"}}