{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,14]],"date-time":"2026-03-14T08:08:56Z","timestamp":1773475736763,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":119,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2009,8,20]],"date-time":"2009-08-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1250726400000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Parasitology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2009,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>SUMMARY<\/jats:title><jats:p><jats:italic>Trypanosoma cruzi<\/jats:italic> is the protozoan agent of Chagas disease, and the most important parasitic disease in Latin America. Protozoa of the genus <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic> are global agents of visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis, fatal and disfiguring diseases. In the 1970s multilocus enzyme electrophoresis demonstrated that <jats:italic>T. cruzi<\/jats:italic> is a heterogeneous complex. Six zymodemes were described, corresponding with currently recognized lineages, TcI and TcIIa-e \u2013 now defined by multiple genetic markers. Molecular epidemiology has substantially resolved the phylogeography and ecological niches of the <jats:italic>T. cruzi<\/jats:italic> lineages. Genetic hybridization has fundamentally influenced <jats:italic>T. cruzi<\/jats:italic> evolution and epidemiology of Chagas disease. Genetic exchange of <jats:italic>T. cruzi in vitro<\/jats:italic> involves fusion of diploids and genome erosion, producing aneuploid hybrids. Transgenic fluorescent clones are new tools to elucidate molecular genetics and phenotypic variation. We speculate that pericardial sequestration plays a role in pathogenesis. Multilocus sequence typing, microsatellites and, ultimately, comparative genomics are improving understanding of <jats:italic>T. cruzi<\/jats:italic> population genetics. Similarly, in <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>, genetic groups have been defined, including epidemiologically important hybrids; genetic exchange can occur in the sand fly vector. We describe the profound impact of this parallel research on genetic diversity of <jats:italic>T. cruzi<\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Leishmania<\/jats:italic>, in the context of epidemiology, taxonomy and disease control.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/s0031182009990977","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,8,20]],"date-time":"2009-08-20T04:46:33Z","timestamp":1250743593000},"page":"1509-1528","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":201,"title":["The molecular epidemiology and phylogeography of <i>Trypanosoma cruzi<\/i> and parallel research on <i>Leishmania<\/i>: looking back and to the future"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"136","author":[{"given":"M. A.","family":"MILES","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"M. S.","family":"LLEWELLYN","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"M. 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