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The HMD presents a pair of video streams to the operator (one to each eye) originating from a pair of stereo cameras located on the front of the robot, thus providing him\/her with a sense of depth (stereopsis). A tracker on the HMD captures 3-DOF head orientation data which is then used for adjusting the camera orientation by moving the robot and\/or the camera position accordingly, and rotating the displayed images to compensate for the operator's head rotation. This approach was implemented in a search and rescue robot (RAPOSA), and it was empirically validated in a series of short user studies. This evaluation involved four experiments covering two-dimensional perception, depth perception, scene perception, and performing a search and rescue task in a controlled scenario. The stereoscopic display and head tracking are shown to afford a number of performance benefits. However, one experiment also revealed that controlling robot orientation with yaw input from the head tracker negatively influenced task completion time. A possible explanation is a mismatch between the abilities of the robot and the human operator. This aside, the studies indicated that the use of an HMD to create a stereoscopic visualization of the camera feeds from a mobile robot enhanced the perception of cues in a static three-dimensional environment and also that such benefits transferred to simulated field scenarios in the form of enhanced task completion times.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1017\/s026357471400126x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,5,29]],"date-time":"2014-05-29T07:52:31Z","timestamp":1401349951000},"page":"2166-2185","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Design and evaluation of a head-mounted display for immersive 3D teleoperation of field robots"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"33","author":[{"given":"Henrique","family":"Martins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Ian","family":"Oakley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Rodrigo","family":"Ventura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,5,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"S026357471400126X_ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1163\/156855306776985577"},{"key":"S026357471400126X_ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2514\/3.20772"},{"key":"S026357471400126X_ref28","first-page":"161","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 7th IEEE\/ACM International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality","author":"Hwang","year":"2008"},{"key":"S026357471400126X_ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2012.45"},{"key":"S026357471400126X_ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/01439910710749663"},{"key":"S026357471400126X_ref53","first-page":"99","volume-title":"Proceedings of RecPad 2012","author":"Reis","year":"2012"},{"key":"S026357471400126X_ref62","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Proceedings of IEEE International Symposium on Safety, Security, and Rescue Robotics (SSRR)","author":"Zalud","year":"2013"},{"key":"S026357471400126X_ref49","first-page":"665","volume-title":"Proceedings of IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)","author":"Okura","year":"2013"},{"key":"S026357471400126X_ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog1804_1"},{"key":"S026357471400126X_ref13","first-page":"46","article-title":"Enhancement of online robotics learning using real-time 3D visualization technology","volume":"8","author":"Chiou","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. 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