{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T19:43:40Z","timestamp":1792784620233,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"38","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789603200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100017150","name":"CALIPSOplus","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["730872"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["730872"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100017150","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003246","name":"Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["628.007.031"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["628.007.031"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003246","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"DESY (Hamburg, Germany), a member of the Helmholtz Association HGF","award":["BAG-20230002 EC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BAG-20230002 EC"]}]},{"name":"DESY (Hamburg, Germany), a member of the Helmholtz Association HGF","award":["I-20200185 EC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["I-20200185 EC"]}]},{"name":"DESY (Hamburg, Germany), a member of the Helmholtz Association HGF","award":["I-20210920 EC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["I-20210920 EC"]}]},{"name":"NANOLight Center of Excellence of the University of Antwerp","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/008x57b05","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Smalt is one of the main blue pigments in Rembrandt van Rijn\u2019s The Night Watch (1642). Smalt is a cobalt-containing potash glass, ground to a powder to be used as an artists\u2019 pigment. In this study, three smalt-containing paint samples from this painting were studied using synchrotron radiation-based micro-X-ray fluorescence (SR-\u03bc-XRF) tomography. To study the original intentions of the artist, the degradation phenomena taking place in the paint and the best preservation methods for the painting, a fuller understanding of the smalt-containing paint mixtures is desired. The smalt particles in Rembrandt\u2019s paints show a wide variety in size and elemental composition. Elements related to smalt are, e.g., cobalt, potassium, arsenic, bismuth, nickel, and iron. The heterogeneity is very high among the particles within one paint sample. Different clusters of particles can be established based on the intensity of bismuth. This variety could be caused by heterogeneity in the cobalt ore, the glass-making process, the use of multiple types of smalt or it might be the result of in-situ degradation. Next to the smalt, the volume percentages taken up by other components of the paint are semi quantitively estimated based on elemental information. This information can be used in follow-up studies to improve the accuracy of models and the representativeness of reconstructed paint mockup samples. SR-\u03bc-XRF tomography proves to be a valuable tool for the identification and quantification of complex heterogenous smalt paints.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.5c07178","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T08:02:24Z","timestamp":1789632144000},"page":"27858-27872","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Visualizing\nand Quantifying Rembrandt\u2019s Smalt\nMixtures in\n                    <i>The Night Watch<\/i>\n                    in Three Dimensions Using\n\u03bc-X-ray Fluorescence Tomography"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"98","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6125-7702","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Fre\u0301derique T. H.","family":"Broers","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Amsterdam , , Science Park 904 , ,","place":["Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1090 GD"]},{"name":"Rijksmuseum , , Hobbemastraat 22 , ,","place":["Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1071 ZC"]},{"name":"University of Antwerp , , Groenenborgerlaan 171 , ,","place":["Antwerp, Belgium, 2020"]},{"name":"Utrecht University , , Universiteitsweg 99 , ,","place":["Utrecht, The Netherlands, 3584 CG"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Annelies","family":"van Loon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rijksmuseum , , Hobbemastraat 22 , ,","place":["Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1071 ZC"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jan","family":"Garrevoet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Photon Science at Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY , ,","place":["Hamburg, Germany, 22607"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Gabrieli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rijksmuseum , , Hobbemastraat 22 , ,","place":["Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1071 ZC"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-8274-0860","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jorien R.","family":"Duivenvoorden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rijksmuseum , , Hobbemastraat 22 , ,","place":["Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1071 ZC"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victor","family":"Gonzalez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rijksmuseum , , Hobbemastraat 22 , ,","place":["Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1071 ZC"]},{"name":"Universite\u0301 Paris-Saclay, ENS Paris-Saclay, CNRS, PPSM , 4 Av. des Sciences , ,","place":["Gif-sur-Yvette, France, 91190"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3695-5410","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Paul J. C.","family":"van Laar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Cambridge , , Trumpington Street , ,","place":["Cambridge, United Kingdom, CB2 1RB"]},{"name":"NOVA Universidade de Lisboa , , ,","place":["Caparica, Portugal, 2829-516"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Petria","family":"Noble","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rijksmuseum , , Hobbemastraat 22 , ,","place":["Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1071 ZC"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Koen","family":"Janssens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Antwerp , , Groenenborgerlaan 171 , ,","place":["Antwerp, Belgium, 2020"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5581-5790","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Florian","family":"Meirer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Utrecht University , , Universiteitsweg 99 , ,","place":["Utrecht, The Netherlands, 3584 CG"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katrien","family":"Keune","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Amsterdam , , Science Park 904 , ,","place":["Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1090 GD"]},{"name":"Rijksmuseum , , Hobbemastraat 22 , ,","place":["Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1071 ZC"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026092909094473900_cit1","first-page":"111","article-title":"Smalt","volume-title":"Artists\u2019 Pigments: A Handbook of Their History\nand Characteristics","author":"Mu\u0308hlethaler","year":"1993"},{"key":"2026092909094473900_cit2","first-page":"96","article-title":"Rembrandt\u2019s\nPortrait(s?) 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J.\n          \n          Aspects of\nthe Manufacture, Trade and History of Smalt. Ph.D.\nThesis. 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ICOM-CC 20th Triennial Conference\nPreprints","author":"Carter","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026092909094473900_cit40","first-page":"207","article-title":"Investigation\nof the Use of the Binding Medium by Rembrandt","volume":"2","author":"Groen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Zeitschrift fu\u0308r Kunsttechnologie und Konservierung"},{"key":"2026092909094473900_cit41","unstructured":"van Loon, A.; Keune, K.; Boon, J. J.\n          Improving the Surface Quality\nof Paint Cross-Sections for Imaging Analytical Studies with Specular\nReflection FTIR and Static-SIMS. In  Art\u201905\n- 8th International Conference on \u201cNon Destructive Investigations\nand Micronalysis for the Diagnostics and Conservation of the Cultural\nand Environmental Heritage.\u201d; Lecce\n(Italy), 2005."},{"key":"2026092909094473900_cit42","unstructured":"Erdmann, R. 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