{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:48:15Z","timestamp":1792792095030,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,23]],"date-time":"2020-12-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1608681600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/page\/policy\/authorchoice_ccbyncnd_termsofuse.html"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006177","name":"Vehicle Technologies Program","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DE-AC02-06CH11357"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DE-AC02-06CH11357"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006177","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Conventional diesel medium- and heavy-duty vehicles (MHDVs) create large amount of air emissions. With the advancement in technology and reduction in the cost of batteries, plug-in battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are increasingly attractive options for improving energy efficiency and reducing air emissions of MHDVs. In this paper, we compared the well-to-wheels (WTW) greenhouse gases (GHGs) and criteria air pollutant emissions of MHD BEVs with their conventional diesel counterparts across weight classes and vocations. We expanded the Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Technologies (GREET) model to conduct the WTW analysis of MHDVs. The fuel economy for a wide range of MHDV weight classes and vocations, over various driving cycles, was evaluated using a high-fidelity vehicle dynamic simulation software (Autonomie). The environmental impacts of MHD BEVs are sensitive to the source of electricity used to recharge their batteries. The WTW results show that MHD BEVs significantly improve environmental sustainability of MHDVs by providing deep reductions in WTW GHGs, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, and carbon monoxide emissions, compared to conventional diesel counterparts. Increasing shares of renewable and natural gas technologies in future national and regional electricity generation are expected to reduce WTW particulate matters and sulfur oxide emissions for further improvement of the environmental performance of MHD BEVs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.0c02931","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,23]],"date-time":"2020-12-23T13:55:57Z","timestamp":1608731757000},"page":"538-546","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":84,"title":["Well-to-Wheels\nAnalysis of Zero-Emission Plug-In Battery Electric Vehicle Technology\nfor Medium- and Heavy-Duty Trucks"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"55","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4683-0272","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Xinyu","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Argonne National Laboratory , , , ,","place":["Lemont, Illinois, United States, 60439"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amgad","family":"Elgowainy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Argonne National Laboratory , , , ,","place":["Lemont, Illinois, United States, 60439"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ram","family":"Vijayagopal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Argonne National Laboratory , , , ,","place":["Lemont, Illinois, United States, 60439"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Argonne National Laboratory , , , ,","place":["Lemont, Illinois, United States, 60439"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit1","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Adminstration.\n          \n          Vehicle Weight\nClasses & Categories. https:\/\/afdc.energy.gov\/data\/10380 (accessed Jul 15, 2020)."},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit2","unstructured":"United States Environmental Protection Agency.\n          \n          Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Fuel\nEfficiency Standards for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Engines and Vehicles\u2500\nPhase 2\n          2016, 7347874274."},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit3","unstructured":"United States Environmental Protection Agency.\n          \n          Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse\nGas Emissions and Sinks. 1990\u20132018. https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/ghgemissions\/inventory-us-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-sinks-1990-2018 (accessed Aug 19, 2020)."},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit4","unstructured":"United States Environmental Protection Agency.\n          \n          National Emissions Inventory (NEI) Data. https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/air-emissions-inventories\/2014-national-emissions-inventory-nei-data (accessed Nov 7, 2019)."},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2018.05.012","article-title":"Life-Cycle\nImplications of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Technology for\nMedium- and Heavy-Duty Trucks","volume":"393","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. 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Part C Emerging Technol."},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2018.12.017","article-title":"The Potential of Electric Trucks \u2013 An International Commodity-Level\nAnalysis","volume":"236","author":"Liimatainen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2019.10.192","article-title":"Comparison of Well-to-Wheels\nEnergy Use and Emissions of a Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle\nRelative to a Conventional Gasoline-Powered Internal Combustion Engine\nVehicle","volume":"45","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2018.01.090","article-title":"The Carbon-Nitrogen\nNexus of Transportation Fuels","volume":"180","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cleaner Prod."},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2015.02.073","article-title":"Life-Cycle Assessment of Greenhouse Gas and Air Emissions\nof Electric Vehicles: A Comparison between China and the U.S","volume":"108","author":"Huo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2018.06.013","article-title":"Effect\nof Electricity Generation Mix on Battery Electric Vehicle Adoption\nand Its Environmental Impact","volume":"121","author":"Choi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2010.10.054","article-title":"Modeling\nthe CO2 Emissions from Battery Electric Vehicles given the Power Generation\nMixes of Different Countries","volume":"39","author":"Doucette","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8844","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b00815","article-title":"Regional Variability and Uncertainty of Electric Vehicle\nLife Cycle CO2 Emissions across the United States","volume":"49","author":"Tamayao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. 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Technol."},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elgowainy, A.; Han, J.; Ward, J.; Joseck, F.; Gohlke, D.; Lindauer, A.; Ramsden, T.; Biddy, M.; Alexander, M.; Barnhart, S.; Sutherland, I.; Verduzco, L.; Wallington, T.\n          Cradle-to-Grave Lifecycle\nAnalysis of U.S. Light Duty Vehicle-Fuel Pathways: A Greenhouse Gas\nEmissions and Economic Assessment of Current (2015) and Future (2025-2030)\nTechnologies; Argonne: IL, United States, 2016. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2172\/1254857.","DOI":"10.2172\/1254857"},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2016.09.046","article-title":"Does a Battery-Electric Truck Make\na Difference? \u2013 Life Cycle Emissions, Costs, and Externality\nAnalysis of Alternative Fuel-Powered Class 8 Heavy-Duty Trucks in\nthe United States","volume":"141","author":"Sen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cleaner Prod."},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10560","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b00648","article-title":"Regional Heterogeneity in the Emissions Benefits of\nElectrified and Lightweighted Light-Duty Vehicles","volume":"53","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit24","unstructured":"Argonne National Laboratory.\n          \n          Autonomie. https:\/\/www.autonomie.net\/ (accessed Nov 22, 2019)."},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit25","unstructured":"Energy Systems. Argonne National Laboratory.\n          \n          The Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Technologies\n(GREET) Model. https:\/\/greet.es.anl.gov\/ (accessed Apr 16, 2019)."},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, M.; Elgowainy, A.; Lee, U.; Benavides, P. T.; Burnham, A.; Cai, H.; Dai, Q.; Hawkins, T. 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Environ."},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit34","unstructured":"Annual Energy Outlook.\n          \n          https:\/\/www.eia.gov\/outlooks\/aeo (accessed Oct 15, 2018)."},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.05.026","article-title":"Comparative\nLife Cycle Assessment of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles\nAddressing Capacity Fade","volume":"229","author":"Marques","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cleaner Prod."},{"key":"2026090216065509300_cit36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-9290.2012.00532.x","article-title":"Comparative Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of\nConventional and Electric Vehicles","volume":"17","author":"Hawkins","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Ind.\nEcol."}],"container-title":["Environmental Science &amp; Technology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1021\/acs.est.0c02931","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"unspecified"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/esthag\/article-pdf\/55\/1\/538\/66996136\/acs.est.0c02931.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/esthag\/article-pdf\/55\/1\/538\/66996136\/acs.est.0c02931.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T20:10:06Z","timestamp":1788379806000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/esthag\/article\/55\/1\/538\/383745\/Well-to-Wheels-Analysis-of-Zero-Emission-Plug-In"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,23]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,23]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,5]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acs.est.0c02931","relation":{},"ISSN":["0013-936X","1520-5851"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0013-936X","type":"print"},{"value":"1520-5851","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,23]]}}}