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We quantified 108 parent pesticides and 116 TPs in more than 3\u202f700 samples from 442 small streams in mostly urban basins across five major regions of the United States. TPs were detected nearly as frequently as parents (90 and 95% of streams, respectively); 102 TPs were detected at least once and 28 were detected in &amp;gt;20% samples in at least one region\ue5f8TPs of 9 herbicides, 2 fungicides (chlorothalonil and thiophanate-methyl), and 1 insecticide (fipronil) were the most frequently detected. TPs occurred commonly during baseflow conditions, indicating chronic environmental TP exposures to aquatic organisms and the likely importance of groundwater as a TP source. Hazard quotients based on acute aquatic-life benchmarks for invertebrates and nonvascular plants and vertebrate-centric molecular endpoints (sublethal effects) quantify the range of the potential contribution of TPs to environmental risk and highlight several TP exposure\u2013response data gaps. A precautionary approach using equimolar substitution of parent benchmarks or endpoints for missing TP benchmarks indicates that potential aquatic effects of pesticide TPs could be underestimated by an order of magnitude or more.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.0c06625","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]],"date-time":"2021-03-10T14:11:54Z","timestamp":1615385514000},"page":"4740-4752","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":88,"title":["Inclusion\nof Pesticide Transformation Products Is\nKey to Estimating Pesticide Exposures and Effects in Small U.S. Streams"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"55","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9150-9552","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Barbara J.","family":"Mahler","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Geological Survey, Oklahoma-Texas Water Science Center , 1505 Ferguson Lane , , ,","place":["Austin, Texas, United States, 78754"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5417-7264","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Lisa H.","family":"Nowell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Geological Survey , , 6000 J Street, Placer Hall , , ,","place":["Sacramento, California, United States, 95819"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0006-5675","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mark W.","family":"Sandstrom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Geological Survey , , P.O. Box 25585, , ,","place":["Denver, Colorado, United States, 80225-0585"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7522-8606","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Paul M.","family":"Bradley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Geological Survey , , 720 Gracern , , ,","place":["Columbia, South\nCarolina, United\nStates, 29210"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kristin M.","family":"Romanok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Geological Survey , , 3450 Princeton Pike , , ,","place":["Lawrenceville, New\nJersey, United\nStates, 08648"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher P.","family":"Konrad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Geological Survey , , 934 Broadway, Suite 300 , , ,","place":["Tacoma, Washington, United States, 98467"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7564-9814","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Peter C.","family":"Van Metre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Geological Survey, Oklahoma-Texas Water Science Center , 1505 Ferguson Lane , , ,","place":["Austin, Texas, United States, 78754"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026081711143055400_cit1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fishel, F.\n          \n          Pesticides and the Environment, https:\/\/extension2.missouri.edu\/g7520 (accessed 08-05-2020).","DOI":"10.32473\/edis-pi285-2020"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026081711143055400_cit2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0048-9697(99)00535-5","article-title":"Finding\nminimal herbicide concentrations\nin ground water? 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Total Environ."},{"issue":"6476","key":"2026081711143055400_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aay6636","article-title":"Tracking complex mixtures of chemicals\nin our changing environment","volume":"367","author":"Escher","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"12","key":"2026081711143055400_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2440","DOI":"10.1021\/es00036a016","article-title":"A reconnaissance\nstudy of herbicides and their metabolites\nin surface water of the midwestern United States using immunoassay\nand gas chromatography\/mass spectrometry","volume":"26","author":"Thurman","year":"1992","journal-title":"Environ.\nSci. Technol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081711143055400_cit9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1021\/es950462q","article-title":"Occurrence of selected pesticides\nand their metabolites in near-surface aquifers of the midwestern United\nStates","volume":"30","author":"Kolpin","year":"1996","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2026081711143055400_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gilliom, R. J.; Barbash, J. E.; Crawford, C. G.; Hamilton, P. A.; Martin, J. D.; Nakagaki, N.; Nowell, L. H.; Scott, J. C.; Stackelberg, P. E.; Thelin, G. P.; Wolock, D. M.\n          Pesticides in the\nNation\u2019s Streams and Ground Water, 1992\u20132001; U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1291; 2006; p 172.","DOI":"10.3133\/cir1291"},{"key":"2026081711143055400_cit11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2013.09.035","article-title":"Screening\nof currently used pesticides in water, sediments and biota of the\nGuadalquivir River Basin (Spain)","volume":"263","author":"Masia\u0301","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hazard.\nMater."},{"issue":"10","key":"2026081711143055400_cit12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5423","DOI":"10.1021\/es500371t","article-title":"How a complete\npesticide screening changes the assessment of surface water quality","volume":"48","author":"Moschet","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. 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Technol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081711143055400_cit24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-013-3356-3","article-title":"Persistence\nof fipronil and its metabolites\nin soil under field conditions","volume":"186","author":"Saini","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Monit.\nAssess."},{"key":"2026081711143055400_cit25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.105234","article-title":"Aquatic pesticide exposure in the\nU.S. as a result of non-agricultural uses","volume":"133","author":"Stehle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ.\nInt."},{"issue":"15","key":"2026081711143055400_cit26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2013.06.031","article-title":"Emerging pesticide\nmetabolites in\ngroundwater and surface water as determined by the application of\na multimethod for 150 pesticide metabolites","volume":"47","author":"Reemtsma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"2026081711143055400_cit27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2019.114972","article-title":"New relevant\npesticide transformation products in groundwater detected using target\nand suspect screening for agricultural and urban micropollutants with\nLC-HRMS","volume":"165","author":"Kiefer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"2026081711143055400_cit28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1752-1688.2005.tb03738.x","article-title":"Glyphosate,\nother herbicides, and transformation products in Midwestern streams,\n2002","volume":"41","author":"Battaglin","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. 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Environ.\nQual."},{"key":"2026081711143055400_cit31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1186\/s12302-019-0241-x","article-title":"Assessment\nof pesticides in surface water samples from Swedish agricultural areas\nby integrated bioanalysis and chemical analysis","volume":"31","author":"Lundqvist","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Eur."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026081711143055400_cit32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/S0048-9697(99)00543-4","article-title":"Pesticides\nin the atmosphere of the\nMississippi River Valley, part I \ue5f8 rain","volume":"248","author":"Majewski","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"2026081711143055400_cit33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2015.11.068","article-title":"Retrospective\nscreening of pesticide metabolites in ambient air using liquid chromatography\ncoupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry","volume":"150","author":"Lo\u0301pez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"issue":"9","key":"2026081711143055400_cit34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2249","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.5620190915","article-title":"Comparison of pesticides in eight\nU.S. urban streams","volume":"19","author":"Hoffman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"2026081711143055400_cit35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.730435","article-title":"Model ecosystem\nstudies of the environmental fate of six organochlorine pesticides","volume":"4","author":"Metcalf","year":"1973","journal-title":"Environ. 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Chem."},{"issue":"11","key":"2026081711143055400_cit39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.1039\/C8AY02774A","article-title":"Comparison\nof GC-MS\/MS and LC-MS\/MS for the analysis\nof hormones and pesticides in surface waters: advantages and pitfalls","volume":"11","author":"He","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026081711143055400_cit40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1116","DOI":"10.2134\/jeq2007.0166","article-title":"Occurrence\nand fate of pesticides in four contrasting agricultural settings in\nthe United States","volume":"37","author":"Steele","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Environ. Qual."},{"key":"2026081711143055400_cit41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.06.156","article-title":"Complex mixtures\nof dissolved pesticides show potential aquatic toxicity in a synoptic\nstudy of Midwestern U.S. streams","volume":"613\u2013614","author":"Nowell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total\nEnviron."},{"key":"2026081711143055400_cit42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2020.116528","article-title":"Paradise lost? 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