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Despite growing concerns, incomplete assessments have hindered the development of effective emission mitigation strategies for the retail sector. In this study, we compiled a comprehensive air pollutant emission inventory for shopping activities in China from 1990 to 2023, comparing in-store and online shopping methods. Our analysis reveals that online shopping reduces PM2.5 emissions from the retail sector by 19% (0.013 g item\u20131 vs 0.031 g item\u20131), primarily due to the greater efficiency of courier deliveries compared to consumer travel to stores. However, emissions of secondary PM2.5 precursors (NOx, SO2, NMVOCs) increase substantially\ue5f8by 49, 270, and 30%, respectively\ue5f8driven by air freight use and overpackaging. Targeted strategies, such as shifting from consumer vehicles to walk and cycling, replacing air freight with high-speed railway freight, and adopting reusable packaging, could mitigate these impacts. Implementing these measures is essential for advancing sustainable retail practices amid the growth of E-commerce.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5c04903","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:46:40Z","timestamp":1760129200000},"page":"22060-22073","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["E\u2011Commerce\nGrowth Reduces Primary PM2.5 Emissions but Increases Secondary\nPM2.5 Precursors in\nChina"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"59","author":[{"given":"Ruibin","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, China, 518055"]},{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 518055"]},{"name":"The Hong Kong Polytechnic University , , ,","place":["Hong Kong, China, 999077"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1335-8477","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Huizhong","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, China, 518055"]},{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 518055"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0856-0865","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Peng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Hong Kong Polytechnic University , , ,","place":["Hong Kong, China, 999077"]},{"name":"Sun Yat-sen University , , ,","place":["Guangzhou, China, 510275"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tao","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Hong Kong Polytechnic University , , ,","place":["Hong Kong, China, 999077"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yilin","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, China, 518055"]},{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 518055"]},{"name":"Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, China, 518055"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peng","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, China, 518055"]},{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 518055"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-6807-4948","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Zelin","family":"Mai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, China, 518055"]},{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 518055"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jinling","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, China, 518055"]},{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 518055"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhiyu","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, China, 518055"]},{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 518055"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruixin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, China, 518055"]},{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 518055"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhanxiang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, China, 518055"]},{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 518055"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8708-0485","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jing","family":"Meng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London , , ,","place":["London, United\nKingdom, WC1E 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518055"]},{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 518055"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9173-1188","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Xin","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, China, 518055"]},{"name":"Southern University of Science and Technology , , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 518055"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2027-8870","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Armistead G.","family":"Russell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Georgia Institute of Technology , , , ,","place":["Atlanta, Georgia, United States, 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Technol."},{"issue":"23","key":"2026081812152881500_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14776","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.0c01731","article-title":"The Future of Food:\nEnvironmental Lessons from E-Commerce","volume":"54","author":"Gee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ.\nSci. Technol."},{"issue":"16","key":"2026081812152881500_cit9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11798","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.2c02050","article-title":"Carbon Footprint of Alternative Grocery Shopping and\nTransportation Options from Retail Distribution Centers to Customer","volume":"56","author":"Kemp","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"6","key":"2026081812152881500_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3499","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b06252","article-title":"Comparative\nGreenhouse Gas Footprinting\nof Online Versus Traditional Shopping for Fast-Moving Consumer Goods:\nA Stochastic Approach","volume":"54","author":"Shahmohammadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"8","key":"2026081812152881500_cit11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2851","DOI":"10.1021\/es802219m","article-title":"A Dynamic Agent-Based\nAnalysis for the Environmental Impacts of Conventional and Novel Book\nRetailing","volume":"43","author":"Xu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2026081812152881500_cit12","unstructured":"Buck, A.\n          \n          Ecommerce Market Size\nby Country. https:\/\/www.mobiloud.com\/blog\/ecommerce-market-size-by-country#:~:text=Biggest%20eCommerce%20Markets%20in%20the%20World%201%201https:\/\/www.mobiloud.com\/blog\/ecommerce-market-size-by-country#:~:text=Biggest%20eCommerce%20Markets%20in%20the%20World%201%201.,%2497.32%20billion%20\u00b7\u00b7\u00b7%208%208.%20Indonesia%20\u00b7\u00b7\u00b7%20%E6%9B%B4%E5%A4%9A%E9%A1%B9%E7%9B%AE (accessed Oct 01, 2025)."},{"key":"2026081812152881500_cit13","volume-title":"China Statistical Yearbook","year":"2023"},{"issue":"1\/2","key":"2026081812152881500_cit14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1108\/09600031011018055","article-title":"Comparative\nAnalysis of the Carbon\nFootprints of Conventional and Online Retailing","volume":"40","author":"Edwards","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Phys. Distrib. Logist. 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Appl."},{"key":"2026081812152881500_cit17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.22459\/AURJ.05.2013.18","article-title":"Comparing\nthe Energy Consumption of Logistics Chains in Traditional Retailing\nand E-Commerce for Popular Products in the Context of China","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"ANU Undergrad. Res. J."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026081812152881500_cit18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2012.01.002","article-title":"Assessing Carbon Footprint\nand Energy Efficiency in Competing Supply Chains: Review \u2013\nCase Studies and Benchmarking","volume":"17","author":"Rizet","year":"2012","journal-title":"Transp. Res.\nD: Transp. Environ."},{"key":"2026081812152881500_cit19","unstructured":"Ministry of Commerce of China. 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Geogr."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026081812152881500_cit28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1108\/147778303104886685","article-title":"The Environmental\nImplications of Electronic Commerce","volume":"14","author":"Abukhader","year":"2003","journal-title":"Manage.\nEnviron. Qual."},{"issue":"6","key":"2026081812152881500_cit29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2012.05.007","article-title":"Transport-Related CO2 Effects\nof Online and Brick-and-Mortar Shopping: A Comparison and Sensitivity\nAnalysis of Clothing Retailing","volume":"17","author":"Wiese","year":"2012","journal-title":"Transp. Res.\nD: Transp. Environ."},{"issue":"6","key":"2026081812152881500_cit30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1080\/01441640902796364","article-title":"From Bricks\nto Clicks: The Impact of Online Retailing on Transport and the Environment","volume":"29","author":"Cullinane","year":"2009","journal-title":"Transport Rev."},{"issue":"5","key":"2026081812152881500_cit31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2981","DOI":"10.3390\/su13052981","article-title":"The Environmental Impact\nof Transport Activities for\nOnline and In-Store Shopping: A Systematic Literature Review to Identify\nRelevant Factors for Quantitative Assessments","volume":"13","author":"Feichtinger","year":"2021","journal-title":"SUSTAINABILITY-BASEL"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026081812152881500_cit32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1007\/s11116-013-9457-6","article-title":"Transport Effects of E-Commerce: What Can Be Learned\nafter Years of Research?","volume":"40","author":"Rotem-Mindali","year":"2013","journal-title":"TRANSPORTATION"},{"key":"2026081812152881500_cit33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2019.04.008","article-title":"Comparison of Life\nCycle Environmental Impacts from Meal Kits and Grocery Store Meals","volume":"147","author":"Heard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"2026081812152881500_cit34","first-page":"71","volume-title":"Environmental Sustainability\nin B2C E-Commerce: The Impact of Multiitem Shopping. Data Science\nin Maritime and City Logistics: Data-driven Solutions for Logistics\nand Sustainability. Proceedings of the Hamburg International Conference\nof Logistics (HICL), Germany, November 24 2020","author":"Siragusa","year":"2020"},{"key":"2026081812152881500_cit35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.05.081","article-title":"Environmental Benefits\nof Electronic Commerce over the Conventional Retail Trade? A Case\nStudy in Shenzhen","volume":"679","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"China. Sci. Total Environ."},{"issue":"11","key":"2026081812152881500_cit36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1038\/s41558-024-02114-y","article-title":"Carbon Dioxide Emissions\nfrom Global Overseas Coal-Fired Power Plants","volume":"14","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Change"},{"key":"2026081812152881500_cit37","unstructured":"Global\nEmission Modeling System\n          . Global Emission\nModeling System (GEMS):\nA Comprehensive Global Emission Inventory for Greenhouse Gases and\nAir Pollutants. https:\/\/gems.sustech.edu.cn\/home (accessed Oct 01, 2025)."},{"issue":"43","key":"2026081812152881500_cit38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16477","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.3c05474","article-title":"Iron and Steel\nIndustry Emissions: A Global Analysis of Trends and Drivers","volume":"57","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. 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