{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T12:12:16Z","timestamp":1788437536472,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"34","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787097600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787097600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787097600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-045"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007268","name":"Washington University in St. Louis","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007268","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Iron electrocoagulation (EC) is a promising approach for removing hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] from water. Understanding the chemical and physical processes that govern Cr(VI) removal under dynamic and environmentally relevant conditions can enable optimal designs of treatment systems. This study evaluated the rates, extents, and mechanisms of Cr(VI) removal in a flow-through EC reactor followed by a flocculation chamber and a settling basin. Using a short EC reactor residence time, low iron doses, and realistic water chemistries, the experiments revealed both advantages and challenges of EC. In water containing only Cr(VI) and NaCl, more than 98% of 500 \u03bcg\/L Cr(VI) was removed using 2.5 mg\/L Fe with an 11 s EC residence time. Cr(VI) was removed by reduction and formation of Cr(III)\u2013Fe(III) precipitates. In the presence of dissolved silica and bicarbonate, Cr(VI) was chemically reduced, but the resulting Cr(III)\u2013Fe(III) particles persisted at sizes that were difficult to separate by microfiltration (0.22 \u03bcm). Higher ionic strength and calcium mitigated these inhibitory effects by promoting particle aggregation that allowed for better particle removal. Near-complete Cr(VI) removal was achieved in a complex groundwater within the 11 s EC residence time at iron doses \u22655 mg\/L. These results demonstrate that both chemical and physical processes need to be considered to accurately anticipate chromium behavior during treatment and to ensure the optimal design of treatment systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6c01856","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T17:01:15Z","timestamp":1787158875000},"page":"24439-24448","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Chemical\nand Physical Processes Governing Chromium(VI)\nRemoval by Continuous Flow-Through Iron Electrocoagulation for Drinking\nWater Treatment"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"60","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7351-4641","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Xicheng","family":"He","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Washington University in St. Louis , , , ,","place":["St. Louis, Missouri, United States, 63130"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4634-5640","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Daniel E.","family":"Giammar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Washington University in St. Louis , , , ,","place":["St. Louis, Missouri, United States, 63130"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]]},"reference":[{"issue":"14","key":"2026090307125631900_cit1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1080\/15287390306388","article-title":"Human Health Risk and\nExposure Assessment of Chromium (VI) in Tap Water","volume":"66","author":"Paustenbach","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. 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Geochem."},{"issue":"12","key":"2026090307125631900_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.estlett.6b00342","article-title":"Origin of Hexavalent\nChromium in Drinking Water Wells from the Piedmont Aquifers of North\nCarolina","volume":"3","author":"Vengosh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett."},{"issue":"7","key":"2026090307125631900_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5942\/jawwa.2012.104.0092","article-title":"Hexavalent Chromium\nReview, Part 2: Chemistry, Occurrence, and Treatment","volume":"104","author":"McNeill","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. AWWA"},{"issue":"14","key":"2026090307125631900_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7663","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.7b06013","article-title":"Oxidation of Cr(III)\u2013Fe(III)\nMixed-Phase Hydroxides by Chlorine:\nImplications on the Control of Hexavalent Chromium in Drinking Water","volume":"52","author":"Chebeir","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2026090307125631900_cit8","unstructured":"US EPA.\n          \n          National Primary Drinking\nWater Regulations. https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/ground-water-and-drinking-water\/national-primary-drinking-water-regulations (accessed 27 February 2025)."},{"key":"2026090307125631900_cit9","unstructured":"California State Water Resources Control Board.\n          \n          Hexavalent Chromium (Chromium-6); https:\/\/www.waterboards.ca.gov\/drinking_water\/certlic\/drinkingwater\/Chromium6.html (accessed 14 August 2025)."},{"issue":"6","key":"2026090307125631900_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5942\/jawwa.2013.105.0080","article-title":"National and\nCalifornia Treatment Costs to Comply with Potential Hexavalent Chromium\nMCLs","volume":"105","author":"Seidel","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. AWWA"},{"issue":"16","key":"2026090307125631900_cit11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6321","DOI":"10.1021\/es050486p","article-title":"Hexavalent\nChromium Removal by Reduction with Ferrous Sulfate, Coagulation, and\nFiltration: A Pilot-Scale Study","volume":"39","author":"Qin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Sci.\nTechnol."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026090307125631900_cit12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5942\/jawwa.2018.110.0022","article-title":"Evaluating Ferrous Chloride for Removal\nof Chromium From Ion-Exchange Waste Brines","volume":"110","author":"Homan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. 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Technol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090307125631900_cit16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2007.09.011","article-title":"Removal of Cr(VI) from\nModel Wastewaters by Electrocoagulation\nwith Fe Electrodes","volume":"61","author":"Heidmann","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"issue":"5","key":"2026090307125631900_cit17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2775","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiec.2013.11.006","article-title":"Characterization of the Removal of Chromium(VI) from\nGroundwater by Electrocoagulation","volume":"20","author":"Hamdan","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Ind. Eng.\nChem."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026090307125631900_cit18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)HZ.2153-5515.0000170","article-title":"Removal of Chromium\nfrom Electroplating\nIndustry Effluent Using Electrocoagulation","volume":"17","author":"Verma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pract. Period. Hazard., Toxic, Radioact. Waste Manage."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090307125631900_cit19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2009.06.025","article-title":"Removal of Cr(VI) from Polluted Solutions\nby Electrocoagulation: Modeling of Experimental Results Using Artificial\nNeural Network","volume":"171","author":"Aber","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090307125631900_cit20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2008.11.012","article-title":"Removal of Hexavalent Chromium from Industrial Wastewater\nby Electrocoagulation: A Comprehensive Comparison of Aluminium and\nIron Electrodes","volume":"66","author":"Zongo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026090307125631900_cit21","first-page":"59","article-title":"Performance\nEvaluation of Electrocoagulation Process for Removal of Chromium (VI)\nfrom Synthetic Chromium Solutions Using Iron and Aluminum Electrodes","volume":"32","author":"Bazrafshan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Turk. J. Eng. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"2026090307125631900_cit22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelechem.2014.09.002","article-title":"Chromium Ions (Cr6+ & Cr3+) Removal from Synthetic\nWastewater by Electrocoagulation Using Vertical Expanded Fe Anode","volume":"735","author":"Zewail","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. 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Technol."},{"issue":"7","key":"2026090307125631900_cit29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4256","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b07934","article-title":"Formation and Transport\nof Cr(III)-NOM-Fe Colloids\nupon Reaction of Cr(VI) with NOM-Fe(II) Colloids at Anoxic\u2013Oxic\nInterfaces","volume":"54","author":"Liao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2026090307125631900_cit30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1039\/D1EN00861G","article-title":"Formation, Aggregation, and Transport\nof NOM\u2013Cr(III) Colloids in Aquatic Environments","volume":"9","author":"Li","journal-title":"Environ. Sci.: Nano"},{"key":"2026090307125631900_cit31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"166979","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.166979","article-title":"Release of\nChromium from Cr(III)- and Ni(II)-Substituted Goethite in Presence\nof Organic Acids: Role of pH in the Formation of Colloids and Complexes","volume":"904","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"issue":"39","key":"2026090307125631900_cit32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30989","DOI":"10.1039\/C4RA15453C","article-title":"(Un)Suitability\nof the Use of pH Buffers in Biological, Biochemical and Environmental\nStudies and Their Interaction with Metal Ions \u2013 a Review","volume":"5","author":"Ferreira","year":"2015","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"issue":"12","key":"2026090307125631900_cit33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2296","DOI":"10.1007\/s10953-013-0107-6","article-title":"Stability\nConstants for the Equilibrium\nModels of Iron(III) with Several Biological Buffers in Aqueous Solutions","volume":"42","author":"Gupta","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Solution Chem."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026090307125631900_cit34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hydromet.2007.02.005","article-title":"Dissolution\nof Iron Oxide Using Oxalic Acid","volume":"87","author":"Lee","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hydrometallurgy"},{"key":"2026090307125631900_cit35","volume-title":"Method 7196A: \u201cChromium, Hexavalent\n(Colorimetric)","author":"US EPA.","year":"1992"},{"issue":"9","key":"2026090307125631900_cit36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-7037(98)00086-6","article-title":"The Reduction\nof Chromium (VI) by Iron (II) in Aqueous Solutions","volume":"62","author":"Pettine","year":"1998","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"key":"2026090307125631900_cit37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2015.05.041","article-title":"Surface Complexation\nModeling of Cr(VI) Adsorption at the Goethite\u2013Water Interface","volume":"455","author":"Xie","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026090307125631900_cit38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1039\/D1EN01085A","article-title":"Molecular-Scale\nStudy of Cr(VI) Adsorption onto Lepidocrocite Facets by EXAFS, in\nSitu ATR-FTIR, Theoretical Frequency Calculations and DFT+U Techniques","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci.: Nano"},{"issue":"17","key":"2026090307125631900_cit39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3195","DOI":"10.1080\/01496395.2019.1671866","article-title":"Industrial Wastewater Treatment by Electrocoagulation Process","volume":"55","author":"Syam Babu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sep. Sci. 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Geochem."},{"issue":"21","key":"2026090307125631900_cit44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11663","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b03015","article-title":"Influence\nof Dissolved Silicate on Rates of Fe(II) Oxidation","volume":"50","author":"Kinsela","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"19","key":"2026090307125631900_cit45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3559","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-7037(03)00160-1","article-title":"Iron (III)-Silica\nInteractions in Aqueous Solution: Insights from X-Ray Absorption Fine\nStructure Spectroscopy","volume":"67","author":"Pokrovski","year":"2003","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim.\nActa"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090307125631900_cit46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gca.2009.09.020","article-title":"Effect\nof Phosphate, Silicate, and Ca on Fe(III)-Precipitates Formed in Aerated\nFe(II)- and As(III)-Containing Water Studied by X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy","volume":"74","author":"Voegelin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"issue":"16","key":"2026090307125631900_cit47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4753","DOI":"10.1021\/la001650j","article-title":"Speciation and Crystal\nChemistry of Iron(III) Chloride\nHydrolyzed in the Presence of SiO4 Ligands. 3. Semilocal\nScale Structure of the Aggregates","volume":"17","author":"Masion","year":"2001","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"2026090307125631900_cit48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gca.2014.02.018","article-title":"Properties of Impurity-Bearing\nFerrihydrite III. Effects of Si on the Structure of 2-Line Ferrihydrite","volume":"133","author":"Cismasu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"key":"2026090307125631900_cit49","volume-title":"Treatment Options for Low-Level Hexavalent\nChromium Removal Tested at Bench Scale","author":"Brandhuber","year":"2004"},{"issue":"15","key":"2026090307125631900_cit50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3616","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gca.2008.05.032","article-title":"Oxygenation of Fe(II)\nin Natural Waters Revisited:\nKinetic Modeling Approaches, Rate Constant Estimation and the Importance\nof Various Reaction Pathways","volume":"72","author":"Pham","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim.\nActa"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090307125631900_cit51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marchem.2003.09.001","article-title":"The Oxidation of\nFe(II) in NaCl\u2013HCO3\u2013 and Seawater Solutions in the Presence\nof Phthalate and Salicylate Ions: A Kinetic Model","volume":"85","author":"Santana-Casiano","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mar. Chem."},{"issue":"19","key":"2026090307125631900_cit52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2997","DOI":"10.1021\/es980206o","article-title":"Role of\nCarbonate Speciation on the Oxidation Rate of Fe(II) in Aquatic Systems","volume":"32","author":"King","year":"1998","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026090307125631900_cit53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1021\/es010935v","article-title":"Iron Oxide\nSurface-Catalyzed Oxidation of Ferrous Iron\nby Monochloramine: Implications of Oxide Type and Carbonate on Reactivity","volume":"36","author":"Vikesland","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2026090307125631900_cit54","volume-title":"Water Quality Engineering:\nPhysical\/Chemical Treatment Processes","author":"Benjamin","year":"2013"},{"issue":"8","key":"2026090307125631900_cit55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4108","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.langmuir.3c03029","article-title":"Colloidal\nChemistry in Water Treatment: The Effect of Ca2+ on the\nInteraction between Humic Acid and Poly(Diallyldimethylammonium Chloride)\n(PDADMAC)","volume":"40","author":"Yuan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"issue":"15","key":"2026090307125631900_cit56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2351","DOI":"10.3390\/w17152351","article-title":"Performance of Continuous Electrocoagulation Processes\n(CEPs) as an Efficient Approach for the Treatment of Industrial Organic\nPollutants: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"17","author":"Al-Qodah","year":"2025","journal-title":"Water"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026090307125631900_cit57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1426","DOI":"10.1021\/es960672i","article-title":"Kinetics and pH\nDependence of Chromium(VI) Reduction\nby Iron(II)","volume":"31","author":"Buerge","year":"1997","journal-title":"Environ. 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