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Here we reveal that plastivorous Tenebrio molitor larvae mediate gut-driven biotransformation and partial defluorination of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in vivo. Over 15 days, the apparent loss of extractable parent PFOA was 47.9% and 41.2% in the 0.5 g kg\u20131 and 20 g kg\u20131 PFOA dietary treatments, respectively. Control-corrected inorganic fluoride recovered from larval tissues and frass, together with the identification of shorter-chain perfluorocarboxylic acids, supported partial defluorination of up to 21.9% and was consistent with both C\u2013F bond cleavage and carbon-chain shortening. Integrated next generation metabolomics (NGMpro) profiling and measurements of relative \u2022OH-associated oxidative signals further showed that larvae reprogrammed metabolism and exhibited a dose-dependent restructuring of the gut redox environment. Low-PFOA conditions were associated with a comparatively coordinated energy and redox state, whereas high-PFOA conditions induced broader stress-associated metabolic reprogramming. These findings provide initial evidence for insect-associated PFOA biotransformation and partial defluorination, and identify plastivore gut systems as a promising biohybrid model for investigating the biological degradation of \u201cforever chemicals\u201d under mild conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6c06637","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]],"date-time":"2026-07-27T08:39:55Z","timestamp":1785141595000},"page":"21753-21765","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["A Plastivore Gut\nSystem Enables In Vivo Biotransformation\nand Partial Defluorination of Perfluorooctanoic Acid"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"60","author":[{"given":"Bo-Yu","family":"Peng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Tongji University , , ,","place":["Shanghai, China, 200092"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yazhou","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tongji University , , ,","place":["Shanghai, China, 200092"]},{"name":"Fuzhou University , , ,","place":["Fuzhou, China, 350100"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qianfeng","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tongji University , , ,","place":["Shanghai, China, 200092"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6521-0592","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Xuefei","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tongji University , , ,","place":["Shanghai, China, 200092"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5244-0655","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Wei-Min","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stanford University , , , ,","place":["Stanford, California, United States, 94305-4020"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3254-8965","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Yalei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tongji University , , ,","place":["Shanghai, China, 200092"]},{"name":"Fuzhou University , , ,","place":["Fuzhou, China, 350100"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]]},"reference":[{"issue":"13","key":"2026081110084057500_cit1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4208","DOI":"10.1039\/D2CS00763K","article-title":"Recycling and the end of life assessment of fluoropolymers: recent\ndevelopments, challenges and future trends","volume":"52","author":"Ame\u0301duri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"issue":"6580","key":"2026081110084057500_cit2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abg9065","article-title":"Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances in the environment","volume":"375","author":"Evich","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026081110084057500_cit3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2013.10.045","article-title":"Behaviour and fate of perfluoroalkyl\nand polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in drinking water treatment:\nA review","volume":"50","author":"Rahman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026081110084057500_cit4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b04906","article-title":"A matrix-correction\napproach to estimate the bioaccumulation potential of emerging PFASs","volume":"54","author":"Song","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"18","key":"2026081110084057500_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10951","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b00927","article-title":"Bioaccumulation of fluorotelomer\nsulfonates and perfluoroalkyl acids in marine organisms living in\naqueous film-forming foam impacted waters","volume":"53","author":"Langberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ.\nSci. Technol."},{"issue":"24","key":"2026081110084057500_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2359","DOI":"10.1080\/10643389.2019.1614848","article-title":"Occurrence of per-and polyfluoroalkyl\nsubstances (PFAS) in source water and their treatment in drinking\nwater","volume":"49","author":"Crone","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"50","key":"2026081110084057500_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22417","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.4c05782","article-title":"New insights into thermal degradation products of long-chain per-and\npolyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and their mineralization enhancement\nusing additives","volume":"58","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"23","key":"2026081110084057500_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16067","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.1c01724","article-title":"Enhancing interface\nreactions by introducing microbubbles into a\nplasma treatment process for efficient decomposition of PFOA","volume":"55","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. 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Technol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081110084057500_cit25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5568","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-33127-w","article-title":"Wax worm\nsaliva and the enzymes therein are the key to polyethylene degradation\nby Galleria mellonella","volume":"13","author":"Sanluis-Verdes","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"2026081110084057500_cit26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132987","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2022.132987","article-title":"Biodegradation of polystyrene and\nlow-density polyethylene by Zophobas atratus larvae: Fragmentation\ninto microplastics, gut microbiota shift, and microbial functional\nenzymes","volume":"367","author":"Peng","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"issue":"5","key":"2026081110084057500_cit27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2821","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b07044","article-title":"Biodegradation of polyethylene\nand polystyrene by greater wax moth larvae (Galleria mellonella L.)\nand the effect of co-diet supplementation on the core gut microbiome","volume":"54","author":"Lou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"23","key":"2026081110084057500_cit28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16737","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.2c03342","article-title":"Biodegradation\nof graphene oxide by insects (Tenebrio molitor larvae): role of the\ngut microbiome and enzymes","volume":"56","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"40","key":"2026081110084057500_cit29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15099","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.3c04406","article-title":"Unveiling\nfragmentation\nof plastic particles during biodegradation of polystyrene and polyethylene\nfoams in mealworms: Highly sensitive detection and digestive modeling\nprediction","volume":"57","author":"Peng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"23","key":"2026081110084057500_cit30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10368","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.4c01130","article-title":"Generation and fate\nof nanoplastics in the intestine of plastic-degrading insect (Tenebrio\nmolitor larvae) during polystyrene microplastic biodegradation","volume":"58","author":"Peng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. 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Mater."},{"key":"2026081110084057500_cit41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.mie.2020.12.029","article-title":"Characterization of biodegradation\nof plastics in insect\nlarvae","volume":"648","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Method Enzymol."},{"key":"2026081110084057500_cit42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118818","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2023.118818","article-title":"Biodegradation\nof polyvinyl\nchloride, polystyrene, and polylactic acid microplastics in Tenebrio\nmolitor larvae: Physiological responses","volume":"345","author":"Peng","year":"2023","journal-title":"J.\nEnviron. Manage."},{"issue":"23","key":"2026081110084057500_cit43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17310","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.2c06260","article-title":"Influence\nof polymer size on polystyrene biodegradation in mealworms\n(Tenebrio molitor): Responses of depolymerization pattern, gut microbiome,\nand metabolome to polymers with low to ultrahigh molecular weight","volume":"56","author":"Peng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"36","key":"2026081110084057500_cit44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16153","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.4c05646","article-title":"Identification\nof emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in e-waste\nrecycling practices and new precursors for trifluoroacetic acid","volume":"58","author":"Baqar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2026081110084057500_cit45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.118169","article-title":"Size-dependent impact of polystyrene microplastics\non the toxicity of cadmium through altering neutrophil expression\nand metabolic regulation in zebrafish larvae","volume":"291","author":"Qin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"2026081110084057500_cit46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"122621","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2020.122621","article-title":"Barrier function of\nzebrafish embryonic chorions against microplastics and nanoplastics\nand its impact on embryo development","volume":"395","author":"Duan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hazard.\nMater."},{"key":"2026081110084057500_cit47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2022.118731","article-title":"Degradation\nof microplastics by hydroxyl radicals generated during microbially\ndriven humus redox transformation","volume":"221","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"issue":"20","key":"2026081110084057500_cit48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7867","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.3c00591","article-title":"Reactive oxygen\nspecies\ntriggered oxidative degradation of polystyrene in the gut of superworms\n(Zophobas atratus larvae)","volume":"57","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2026081110084057500_cit49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpc.2021.109117","article-title":"A toxicological\nperspective of plastic biodegradation by insect larvae","volume":"248","author":"Sanchez-Hernandez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol., C"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026081110084057500_cit50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1774","DOI":"10.1021\/acssuschemeng.2c05904","article-title":"Biodegradation\nand\ncarbon resource recovery of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)\n(PBAT) by mealworms: Removal efficiency, depolymerization pattern,\nand microplastic residue","volume":"11","author":"Peng","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. 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