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Here we show that freshly emitted sea spray exhibits enhanced oxidative activity under dark conditions, with oxidative signals consistently exceeding those of the corresponding source seawater at three coastal sites in China. Controlled laboratory experiments further demonstrate that salinity strongly suppresses oxidation in isolated droplets, whereas interacting droplet populations retain pronounced hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical formation, indicating that the oxidative behavior of real sea sprays cannot be fully explained by single-droplet action. Numerical simulations, high-speed imaging, photon-emission measurements, and flow-controlled chamber experiments support a mechanism in which droplet interactions create localized electrostatic environments that promote hydroxyl radical and hydrogen peroxide formation and are linked to measurable changes in gas-phase oxidants under controlled spray conditions. Nighttime observations from three coastal stations show that elevated wave activity coincides with higher ozone and lower NOx and SO2 during hours when photochemical oxidant production is minimized, consistent with sea-spray-associated oxidative processing. These results identify droplet interactions as a previously underappreciated contributor to dark oxidation in sea sprays.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6c08747","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T13:13:12Z","timestamp":1785849192000},"page":"21992-21999","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Interdroplet Electrostatic\nInteractions Contribute\nto Dark Oxidation in Nighttime Sea Sprays"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"60","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7647-4921","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Yu","family":"Xia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Jianghan University , , ,","place":["Wuhan, China, 430056"]},{"name":"Stanford University , , , ,","place":["Stanford, California, United States, 94305"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jianghan University , , ,","place":["Wuhan, China, 430056"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-1187-5389","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jinheng","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stanford University , , , ,","place":["Stanford, California, United States, 94305"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jianghan University , , ,","place":["Wuhan, China, 430056"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2212-6694","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Yong","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jianghan University , , ,","place":["Wuhan, China, 430056"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2637-1929","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jianbo","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China University of Geosciences , , ,","place":["Wuhan, China, 430078"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5266-4253","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Richard N.","family":"Zare","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stanford University , , , ,","place":["Stanford, California, United States, 94305"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]]},"reference":[{"issue":"9","key":"2026081110082726800_cit1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3075","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-9-3075-2009","article-title":"Radicals in the marine\nboundary layer during NEAQS 2004: a model study of day-time and night-time\nsources and sinks","volume":"9","author":"Sommariva","year":"2009","journal-title":"Atmos. 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Res.:\nAtmos."},{"issue":"10","key":"2026081110082726800_cit4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2307","DOI":"10.1021\/acsearthspacechem.9b00087","article-title":"The old and the new: Aging of sea\nspray aerosol and formation of secondary marine aerosol through OH\noxidation reactions","volume":"3","author":"Trueblood","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Earth Space Chem."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081110082726800_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1038\/s41612-025-00911-6","article-title":"Characterisation of environmentally\npersistent free radicals and their contributions to oxidative potential\nand reactive oxygen species in sea spray and size-resolved ambient\nparticles","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"npj Clim. Atmos. Sci."},{"issue":"10","key":"2026081110082726800_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1513","DOI":"10.1039\/D3EA00060E","article-title":"Atmospheric\noxidation impact on sea spray produced ice nucleating particles","volume":"3","author":"DeMott","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci.: Atmos."},{"issue":"13","key":"2026081110082726800_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10625","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-21-10625-2021","article-title":"Mediterranean\nnascent sea spray organic aerosol and relationships with seawater\nbiogeochemistry","volume":"21","author":"Freney","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026081110082726800_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2149","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-12-2149-2012","article-title":"Seasonal observations\nof OH and HO2 in the remote tropical marine boundary layer","volume":"12","author":"Vaughan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. 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Commun."},{"issue":"8","key":"2026081110082726800_cit26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6299","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.4c15493","article-title":"The role of\ninterfaces and charge for chemical reactivity in microdroplets","volume":"147","author":"LaCour","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"issue":"10","key":"2026081110082726800_cit27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2412246","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202412246","article-title":"Methane\nbubbled through seawater can be converted to methanol with high efficiency","volume":"12","author":"Song","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. 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Fluid Mech."},{"issue":"27","key":"2026081110082726800_cit31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23399","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.5c07564","article-title":"Water droplet microlightning sparks\nalkyne ozonolysis","volume":"147","author":"Meng","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"issue":"28","key":"2026081110082726800_cit32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5684","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jpca.4c02981","article-title":"Visualization\nof the charging of water droplets sprayed into air","volume":"128","author":"Xia","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. A"}],"container-title":["Environmental Science &amp;\nTechnology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1021\/acs.est.6c08747","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"unspecified"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/esthag\/article-pdf\/60\/31\/21992\/66315819\/acs.est.6c08747.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/esthag\/article-pdf\/60\/31\/21992\/66315819\/acs.est.6c08747.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]],"date-time":"2026-08-11T15:01:55Z","timestamp":1786460515000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/esthag\/article\/60\/31\/21992\/5235945\/Interdroplet-Electrostatic-Interactions-Contribute"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"31","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acs.est.6c08747","relation":{},"ISSN":["0013-936X","1520-5851"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0013-936X","type":"print"},{"value":"1520-5851","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]]}}}