{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T01:48:05Z","timestamp":1790646485019,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"37","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788998400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100019625","name":"EIT RawMaterials","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100019625","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001665","name":"Agence Nationale de la Recherche","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ANR-22-EXSS-0007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANR-22-EXSS-0007"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001665","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Commission","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["101183654"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101183654"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Commission","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["22039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22039"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The rapid expansion of battery-grade lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) production from brines raises increasing concerns about future environmental impacts, which must be assessed in alignment with project commissioning timelines. Here, we assess the life cycle climate change and water scarcity impacts for 24 operating and announced brine-based Li2CO3 projects, accounting for future technology optimization and economy-wide decarbonization across the energy and chemical reagent sectors. These developments could reduce climate change impacts of individual projects by 26\u201389% by 2035. Substantial project-level mitigation does not necessarily translate into lower impact intensity in the Li2CO3 supply mix of these projects, which depends on the success of planned production capacity. Technology optimization and economy-wide decarbonization can only offset the higher impacts from announced projects, while achieving meaningful cuts requires a transition to electrified heating. This shift, combined with more resource-intensive direct lithium extraction (DLE) technologies, may exacerbate water scarcity impacts beyond production sites. Building a sustainable lithium supply chain demands early mitigation to counterbalance higher impacts of upcoming projects, heat decarbonization as an immediate rather than long-term goal, accelerated decarbonization of soda ash and lime industries, and a supply chain-wide approach to water management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6c09037","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T09:01:41Z","timestamp":1789030901000},"page":"26408-26420","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Future\nEnvironmental\nPerformance of Lithium from Brines\nShaped by Energy and Reagent Decarbonization and Technology Optimization"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"60","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3409-9702","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Robert","family":"Istrate","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Leiden University , , ,","place":["Leiden, The Netherlands, 2333 CC"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0825-8535","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Vanessa","family":"Schenker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ETH Zurich , , ,","place":["Zurich, Switzerland, 8093"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antoine","family":"Beylot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BRGM , ,","place":["Orle\u0301ans, France, F-45060"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victoire","family":"Collignon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BRGM , ,","place":["Orle\u0301ans, France, F-45060"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8984-2041","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Stephan","family":"Pfister","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ETH Zurich , , ,","place":["Zurich, Switzerland, 8093"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bernhard","family":"Steubing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leiden University , , ,","place":["Leiden, The Netherlands, 2333 CC"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit1","unstructured":"IEA.\n          \n          Global\nCritical Minerals Outlook 2025; International\nEnergy Agency, 2025. https:\/\/www.iea.org\/reports\/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2025 (accessed 24 May 2025)."},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113938","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2023.113938","article-title":"Critical Mineral Demand\nEstimates for Low-Carbon Technologies: What Do They Tell Us and How\nCan They Evolve?","volume":"189","author":"Calderon","year":"2024","journal-title":"Renewable Sustainable Energy\nRev."},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit3","unstructured":"IEA.\n          \n          Global Supply Chains of EV\nBatteries; International Energy Agency, 2022, https:\/\/www.iea.org\/reports\/global-supply-chains-of-ev-batteries."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026092210092708800_cit4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.2138\/gselements.16.4.259","article-title":"Classification and\nCharacteristics of Natural Lithium Resources","volume":"16","author":"Bowell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Elements"},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2022.106611","article-title":"Regionalized Life Cycle\nAssessment\nof Present and Future Lithium Production for Li-Ion Batteries","volume":"187","author":"Schenker","year":"2022","journal-title":"Res. Conservat. Recycl."},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2021.105762","article-title":"Greenhouse Gas,\nand Water Life Cycle Analysis of Lithium Carbonate and Lithium Hydroxide\nMonohydrate from Brine and Ore Resources and Their Use in Lithium\nIon Battery Cathodes and Lithium Ion Batteries","volume":"174","author":"Kelly","year":"2021","journal-title":"Res. Conservat. Recycl."},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2022.106634","article-title":"Life Cycle\nEnvironmental Impacts of Current and Future Battery-Grade Lithium\nSupply from Brine and Spodumene","volume":"187","author":"Chordia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Res. Conservat.\nRecycl."},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"142108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2024.142108","article-title":"Carbon and\nWater Footprint of Battery-Grade Lithium\nfrom Brine and Spodumene: A Simulation-Based LCA","volume":"452","author":"Mas-Fons","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026092210092708800_cit9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s43247-020-00080-9","article-title":"Extended Life\nCycle Assessment Reveals\nthe Spatially-Explicit Water Scarcity Footprint of a Lithium-Ion Battery\nStorage","volume":"2","author":"Schomberg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Commun. Earth Environ."},{"issue":"13","key":"2026092210092708800_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6543","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.4c12619","article-title":"Current and Future\nImpacts of Lithium Carbonate from\nBrines: A Global Regionalized Life Cycle Assessment Model","volume":"59","author":"Schenker","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107977","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2024.107977","article-title":"Unlocking Sustainable Lithium: A\nComparative Life Cycle Assessment of Innovative Extraction Methods\nfrom Brine","volume":"212","author":"Nikfar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Res. Conservat. Recycl."},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2024.107583","article-title":"Environmental Impact\nAssessment of Direct Lithium Extraction from Brine Resources: Global\nWarming Potential, Land Use, Water Consumption, and Charting Sustainable\nScenarios","volume":"205","author":"Mousavinezhad","year":"2024","journal-title":"Res. Conservat. Recycl."},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit13","unstructured":"SP Global Market Intelligence; SP Capital\nIQ Pro platform, 2026, https:\/\/www.spglobal.com\/market-intelligence\/en. (accessed 24 April 2026)."},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15828","DOI":"10.1021\/acssuschemeng.5c03739","article-title":"Environmental Impacts of Lithium Brines Across the World: Brine Quality,\nTechnology Choices and Regional Disparities","volume":"13","author":"Feng","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Sustainable Chem. 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Handbook\nOf Lithium and Natural Calcium Chloride - Their Deposits, Processing,\nUses And Properties","author":"Garett","year":"2004"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026092210092708800_cit28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1038\/s43017-022-00387-5","article-title":"Environmental\nImpact of Direct Lithium Extraction from Brines","volume":"4","author":"Vera","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Earth Environ."},{"issue":"20","key":"2026092210092708800_cit29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6805","DOI":"10.3390\/en14206805","article-title":"Technology for the\nRecovery of Lithium from Geothermal\nBrines","volume":"14","author":"Stringfellow","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energies"},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2024.114456","article-title":"Is Lithium from Geothermal\nBrines the Sustainable Solution for Li-Ion Batteries?","volume":"199","author":"Schenker","year":"2024","journal-title":"Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev."},{"issue":"9","key":"2026092210092708800_cit31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367-016-1087-8","article-title":"The Ecoinvent Database Version 3\n(Part I): Overview\nand Methodology","volume":"21","author":"Wernet","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. 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Prod."},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit38","unstructured":"European Lime Association.\n          \n          Competitive and Efficient\nLime Industry: Cornerstone for a Sustainable Europe; European Lime Association, 2014. https:\/\/www.eula.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/02\/A-Competitive-and-Efficient-Lime-Industry-Technical-report-by-Ecofys_0.pdf."},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit39","volume-title":"Mineral Commodity Summaries\n2024 - Soda Ash","author":"USGS.","year":"2024"},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1021\/cen-10107-feature2","article-title":"Can Synthetic\nSoda Ash Survive?","author":"Scott","year":"2023","journal-title":"CEN Global Enterprise"},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit41","volume-title":"Technical Support\nDocument For The Soda Ash Manufacturing Sector","author":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.","year":"2009"},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit42","unstructured":"European Commission.\n          \n          Integrated\nPollution Prevention\nand Control (IPPC), Reference Document on Best Available Techniques\n(BREF) in Large Volume Inorganic Chemicals \u2013 Solids and Others\nIndustry; European IPPC Bureau: Brussels, Belgium, 2007. https:\/\/bureau-industrial-transformation.jrc.ec.europa.eu\/sites\/default\/files\/2019-11\/lvic-s_bref_0907.pdf (accessed 01 September 2025)."},{"issue":"10","key":"2026092210092708800_cit43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3563","DOI":"10.1021\/acsenergylett.1c01827","article-title":"Caustic Soda Production, Energy Efficiency,\nand Electrolyzers","volume":"6","author":"Kumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Energy Lett."},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit44","unstructured":"European Chlor\nAlkali Industry Review 2023-2024; 2024. https:\/\/www.eurochlor.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/Chlor_Alkali_Industry_Review_2023_2024.pdf (accessed 2025-09-03)."},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit45","unstructured":"Ausenco Chile Limitada.\n          \n          Tolillar Project NI 43-101\nTechnical Report Update on Preliminary Economic Assessment; Ausenco Chile Limitada, 2023. https:\/\/minedocs.com\/25\/Tolillar-PEA-8102023.pdf (accessed 20 March 2026)."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026092210092708800_cit46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joule.2020.12.007","article-title":"To Decarbonize Industry,\nWe Must Decarbonize Heat","volume":"5","author":"Thiel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Joule"},{"key":"2026092210092708800_cit47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100089","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adapen.2022.100089","article-title":"Electrification\nPotential of U.S. Industrial Boilers and Assessment of the GHG Emissions\nImpact","volume":"5","author":"Schoeneberger","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. 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