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Here, we profiled relative abundances (as a fraction, normalized by 16S rRNA gene) of 30 ARG subtypes resistant to seven common classes of antibiotics, which are quinolones, \u03b2-lactams, macrolides, tetracyclines, sulfonamides, aminoglycosides, and vancomycins, in ambient total particulate matter (PM) using a novel protocol across 19 world cities. In addition, their longitudinal changes in PM2.5 samples in Xi\u2019an, China as an example were also studied. Geographically, the ARGs were detected to vary by nearly 100-fold in their abundances, for example, from 0.07 (Bandung, Indonesia) to 5.6 (San Francisco, USA). The \u03b2-lactam resistance gene blaTEM was found to be most abundant, seconded by quinolone resistance gene qepA; and their corresponding relative abundances have increased by 178% and 26%, respectively, from 2004 to 2014 in Xi\u2019an. Independent of cities, gene network analysis indicates that airborne ARGs were differentially contributed by bacterial taxa. Results here reveal that urban air is being polluted by ARGs, and different cities are challenged with varying health risks associated with airborne ARG exposure. This work highlights the threat of urban airborne transmission of ARGs and the need of redefining our current air quality standards in terms with public health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.8b02204","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,25]],"date-time":"2018-07-25T08:00:35Z","timestamp":1532505635000},"page":"10975-10984","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":367,"title":["Global\nSurvey of Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Air"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"52","author":[{"given":"Jing","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Peking University , , ,","place":["Beijing, China, 100871"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Junji","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Sciences , , ,","place":["Xi\u2019an, China, 710049"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yong-guan","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Sciences , , ,","place":["Xiamen, China, 361021"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qing-lin","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Sciences , , ,","place":["Xiamen, China, 361021"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fangxia","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beihang University , , ,","place":["Beijing, China, 100191"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yan","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shandong University , , ,","place":["Jinan, China, 250100"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Siyu","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Seoul National University , , ,","place":["Seoul, South Korea, 08826"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hanqing","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Columbia University , , , ,","place":["New York, New York, United States, 10027"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guillaume","family":"Da","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CERTES, Universite\u0301 Paris-Est Cre\u0301teil , , ,","place":["Cre\u0301teil, France, 94000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ru-jin","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Sciences , , ,","place":["Xi\u2019an, China, 710049"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ETH Zurich , , ,","place":["Zurich, Switzerland, 8093"]},{"name":"Empa , , ,","place":["Du\u0308bendorf, Switzerland, 8600"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alma Lorelei","family":"de Jesus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Queensland University of Technology , , GPO Box 2434, , ,","place":["Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, 4001"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0594-9683","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Lidia","family":"Morawska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Queensland University of Technology , , GPO Box 2434, , ,","place":["Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, 4001"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chak K.","family":"Chan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , Tat Chee Avenue , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong, China"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jordan","family":"Peccia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yale University , , , ,","place":["New Haven, Connecticut, United States, 06520"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1442-8054","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Maosheng","family":"Yao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Peking University , , ,","place":["Beijing, China, 100871"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit1","volume-title":"Review\non Antimicrobial Resistance. 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Microbiol."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.8837","article-title":"The potential role\nof concentrated animal feeding operations\nin infectious disease epidemics and antibiotic resistance","volume":"115","author":"Gilchrist","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Health. Persp."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93435","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1222743110","article-title":"Diverse and abundant\nantibiotic resistance genes in Chinese swine farms","volume":"110","author":"Zhu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10197","DOI":"10.1021\/es4017365","article-title":"Exploring variation of antibiotic\nresistance genes in activated sludge over a four-year period through\na metagenomic approach","volume":"47","author":"Yang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-016-0199-5","article-title":"The structure\nand diversity of human, animal and environmental resistomes","volume":"4","author":"Pal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1038\/260040a0","article-title":"Spread of antibiotic resistance plasmids\nfrom chicken to chicken and from chicken to man","volume":"260","author":"Levy","year":"1976","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4015","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.60.11.4015-4021.1994","article-title":"Transfer of multiple-drug\nresistance plasmids between bacteria of\ndiverse origins in natural microenvironments","volume":"60","author":"Kruse","year":"1994","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. 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Microbiol."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5721","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b05887","article-title":"The Prevalence of Integrons\nas the carrier of antibiotic resistance genes in natural and man-made\nenvironments","volume":"51","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16270","DOI":"10.1038\/nmicrobiol.2016.270","article-title":"Continental-scale\npollution of estuaries with antibiotic resistance genes","volume":"2","author":"Zhu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2008.09.013","article-title":"Methicillin resistance of airborne Coagulase-negative Staphylococci in homes of persons having\ncontact with a hospital environment","volume":"37","author":"Lis","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J.\nInfect. 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Environ."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2255","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.7b00118","article-title":"Disparate antibiotic resistance gene quantities revealed\nacross 4 major cities in California: A survey in drinking water, air,\nand soil at 24 public parks","volume":"2","author":"Echeverria-palencia","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1342","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2016.10.101","article-title":"Size-related bacterial\ndiversity and tetracycline resistance gene abundance in the air of\nconcentrated poultry feeding operations","volume":"220","author":"Gao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ.\nPollut."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.09.222","article-title":"Metagenomic profiling of ARGs in airborne particulate\nmatters during a severe smog event","volume":"615","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total\nEnviron."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.estlett.7b00561","article-title":"2018. Seasonal disparities\nin airborne bacteria and associated antibiotic resistance genes in\nPM2. 5 between urban and rural sites","volume":"5","author":"Xie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ.\nSci. Technol. Lett."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10660","DOI":"10.1021\/es402848d","article-title":"Characterization of biological aerosol exposure risks from automobile\nair conditioning system","volume":"47","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1691","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1120238109","article-title":"In-feed antibiotic\neffects on the swine intestinal\nmicrobiome","volume":"109","author":"Looft","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. 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Protoc."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e111988","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0111988","article-title":"HemI: A Toolkit\nfor Illustrating Heatmaps","volume":"9","author":"Deng","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2490","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2015.59","article-title":"Metagenomic and network\nanalysis\nreveal wide distribution and co-occurrence of environmental antibiotic\nresistance genes","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit29","first-page":"361","article-title":"Gephi: An\nopen source software for\nexploring and manipulating networks","volume":"8","author":"Bastian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. of\nthe Third Int. ICWSM Conf."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1002\/spe.4380211102","article-title":"Graph drawing by force-directed placement","volume":"21","author":"Fruchterman","year":"1991","journal-title":"Software Pract. Exp."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7537","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01541-09","article-title":"Introducing mothur: Open-source,\nplatform-independent, community-supported software for describing\nand comparing microbial communities","volume":"75","author":"Schloss","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Environ.\nMicrobiol."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0802.010102","article-title":"Antibiotic\nresistance patterns of bacterial isolates from blood in San Francisco\nCounty, California, 1996\u20131999","volume":"8","author":"Huang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Emerging\nInfect. Dis."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Merchant, S.; Tabak, Y. P.; Deryke, C. A.; Depestel, D. D.; Johannes, R. S.; Moise, P.; Gupta, V.\n          \n            Pseudomonas aeruginosa non-susceptibility to common antibiotics by source in USA hospitals\nin 2015: A Multicenter Study.  Open Forum Infectious\nDiseases, 2016, 3, (suppl_1).","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofw172.224"},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit34","volume-title":"Cephalosporin Order of Prohibition\nGoes into\nEffect","author":"FDA.","year":"2012"},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(14)70780-7","article-title":"Global antibiotic\nconsumption 2000 to 2010: An analysis of national pharmaceutical sales\ndata","volume":"14","author":"Van Boeckel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"fiv169","DOI":"10.1093\/femsec\/fiv169","article-title":"Temporal\nchanges of antibiotic-resistance\ngenes and bacterial communities in two contrasting soils treated with\ncattle manure","volume":"92","author":"Hu","year":"2016","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Eco."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7687","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.122108599","article-title":"The evolutionary\nhistory of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)","volume":"99","author":"Enright","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc.\nNatl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa055356","article-title":"Methicillin-resistant S. aureus infections among patients in the emergency department","volume":"355","author":"Moran","year":"2006","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. 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Infect."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10571","article-title":"Ecology drives a\nglobal network of gene exchange connecting\nthe human microbiome","volume":"480","author":"Smillie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11894","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b02990","article-title":"Correlations\nof gut microbial community shift with hepatic damage and growth inhibition\nof Carassius auratus induced by pentachlorophenol\nexposure","volume":"49","author":"Kan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8577","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0601602103","article-title":"Modularity\nand community structure in networks","volume":"103","author":"Newman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl.\nAcad. Sci. U. S. A."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13377","article-title":"Bacterial phylogeny structures soil\nresistomes across habitats","volume":"509","author":"Forsberg","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit45","first-page":"889","article-title":"Use of injections and\nantibiotics in the outpatients from Xi\u2019an\nHuashan central hospital during 2008\u20132010","volume":"12","author":"Sun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Evaluation and Analysis of Drug-Use in Hospitals of China"},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(08)70041-0","article-title":"Extended-spectrum\n\u03b2-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae: An\nemerging public-health concern","volume":"8","author":"Pitout","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet Infect.\nDis."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.000280","article-title":"Detection of blaSPM-1, blaKPC, blaTEM and blaCTX-M genes in isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter spp. and Klebsiella spp.\nfrom cancer patients with healthcare associated infections","volume":"65","author":"Ja\u0301come","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.000403","article-title":"Frequency of antiseptic resistance\ngenes and reduced susceptibility to biocides in carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii","volume":"66","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit49","volume-title":"Global Priority List of Antibiotic-Resistant\nBacteria to Guide Research, Discovery, And Development of New Antibiotics","author":"WHO.","year":"2017"},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(78)90955-8","article-title":"Serratia marcescens colonising the gut","volume":"1","author":"Jones","year":"1978","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"2026090303302520000_cit51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3083","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.66.7.3083-3087.2000","article-title":"A new Klebsiella planticola strain (Cd-1) grows anaerobically\nat high cadmium concentrations and precipitates cadmium sulfide","volume":"66","author":"Sharma","year":"2000","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. 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