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Fungicides can reach aquatic ecosystems and occur in surface water bodies in agricultural catchments throughout the entire growing season due to their frequent, prophylactic application. However, in comparison to herbicides and insecticides, the exposure to and effects of fungicides have received less attention. We provide an overview of the risk of fungicides to aquatic ecosystems covering fungicide exposure (i.e., environmental fate, exposure modeling, and mitigation measures) as well as direct and indirect effects of fungicides on microorganisms, macrophytes, invertebrates, and vertebrates. We show that fungicides occur widely in aquatic systems, that the accuracy of predicted environmental concentrations is debatable, and that fungicide exposure can be effectively mitigated. We additionally demonstrate that fungicides can be highly toxic to a broad range of organisms and can pose a risk to aquatic biota. Finally, we outline central research gaps that currently challenge our ability to predict fungicide exposure and effects, promising research avenues, and shortcomings of the current environmental risk assessment for fungicides.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.8b04392","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,5]],"date-time":"2019-03-05T21:01:14Z","timestamp":1551819674000},"page":"3347-3365","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":818,"title":["Fungicides:\nAn Overlooked Pesticide Class?"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"53","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9642-2205","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jochen P.","family":"Zubrod","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Koblenz-Landau , , Fortstra\u00dfe 7 , ,","place":["Landau, Germany, D-76829"]},{"name":"University of Koblenz-Landau , , Birkenthalstra\u00dfe 13 , ,","place":["Eu\u00dferthal, Germany, D-76857"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mirco","family":"Bundschuh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Koblenz-Landau , , Fortstra\u00dfe 7 , ,","place":["Landau, Germany, D-76829"]},{"name":"Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences , , Lennart Hjelms va\u0308g 9 , ,","place":["Uppsala, Sweden, SWE-75007"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gertie","family":"Arts","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wageningen University and Research , , ,","place":["Wageningen, The Netherlands"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carsten A.","family":"Bru\u0308hl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Koblenz-Landau , , Fortstra\u00dfe 7 , ,","place":["Landau, Germany, D-76829"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gwenae\u0308l","family":"Imfeld","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire d\u2019Hydrologie et de Ge\u0301ochimie de Strasbourg (LHyGeS) , , 1 rue Blessig , Cedex,","place":["Strasbourg, France, 67084"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anja","family":"Kna\u0308bel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Koblenz-Landau , , Fortstra\u00dfe 7 , ,","place":["Landau, Germany, D-76829"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2546-7857","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sylvain","family":"Payraudeau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire d\u2019Hydrologie et de Ge\u0301ochimie de Strasbourg (LHyGeS) , , 1 rue Blessig , Cedex,","place":["Strasbourg, France, 67084"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jes J.","family":"Rasmussen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aarhus University , , Vejlsoevej 25 , ,","place":["Silkeborg, Denmark, 8600"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jason","family":"Rohr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of South Florida , , , ,","place":["Tampa, Florida, United States"]},{"name":"University of Notre Dame , , , ,","place":["Notre Dame, Indiana, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Scharmu\u0308ller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Koblenz-Landau , , Fortstra\u00dfe 7 , ,","place":["Landau, Germany, D-76829"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1214-4920","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Kelly","family":"Smalling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Geological Survey , , , ,","place":["Lawrenceville, New Jersey, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sebastian","family":"Stehle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Koblenz-Landau , , Fortstra\u00dfe 7 , ,","place":["Landau, Germany, D-76829"]},{"name":"University of Koblenz-Landau , , Birkenthalstra\u00dfe 13 , ,","place":["Eu\u00dferthal, Germany, D-76857"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ralf","family":"Schulz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Koblenz-Landau , , Fortstra\u00dfe 7 , ,","place":["Landau, Germany, D-76829"]},{"name":"University of Koblenz-Landau , , Birkenthalstra\u00dfe 13 , ,","place":["Eu\u00dferthal, Germany, D-76857"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3510-1701","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ralf B.","family":"Scha\u0308fer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Koblenz-Landau , , Fortstra\u00dfe 7 , 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Rev. Phytopathol."},{"key":"2026090216052848000_cit3","unstructured":"Eurostat Pesticide sales. http:\/\/appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu\/nui\/show.do?dataset=aei_fm_salpest09."},{"key":"2026090216052848000_cit4","article-title":"NEPTUN\n2009 - Weinbau","volume":"151","author":"Ro\u00dfberg","year":"2009","journal-title":"Berichte aus der BBA"},{"key":"2026090216052848000_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.2137\/145960611795163042","article-title":"Pests and\ndiseases in a changing climate: a major challenge for Finnish crop\nproduction","volume":"20","author":"Hakala","year":"2011","journal-title":"Agric. Food Sci."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026090216052848000_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.0800084","article-title":"Impacts of climate change on indirect human exposure\nto pathogens and chemicals from agriculture","volume":"117","author":"Boxall","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"issue":"19","key":"2026090216052848000_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7193","DOI":"10.1021\/es8009309","article-title":"Azole fungicides: occurrence and\nfate in wastewater\nand surface waters","volume":"42","author":"Kahle","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090216052848000_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agee.2011.10.010","article-title":"Entry and toxicity\nof organic pesticides and copper in vineyard streams: erosion rills\njeopardise the efficiency of riparian buffer strips","volume":"146","author":"Bereswill","year":"2012","journal-title":"Agric., Ecosyst. Environ."},{"key":"2026090216052848000_cit9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1201\/9780203646830","volume-title":"Chemical Pesticides Mode\nof Action and Toxicology","author":"Stenersen","year":"2004"},{"issue":"19","key":"2026090216052848000_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7556","DOI":"10.1021\/es901461c","article-title":"Fungicide\nrisk assessment for aquatic\necosystems: importance of interspecific variation, toxic mode of action,\nand exposure regime","volume":"43","author":"Maltby","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"6147","key":"2026090216052848000_cit11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1237591","article-title":"Wildlife ecotoxicology\nof pesticides: can we track\neffects to the population level and beyond?","volume":"341","author":"Ko\u0308hler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2026090216052848000_cit12","first-page":"1","article-title":"Pesticidal copper\n(I) oxide: environmental fate and aquatic toxicity","volume-title":"Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology","author":"Kiaune","year":"2011"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090216052848000_cit13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00228784","article-title":"Copper toxicity and chemistry in\nthe environment: a\nreview","volume":"44","author":"Flemming","year":"1989","journal-title":"Water, Air, Soil Pollut."},{"key":"2026090216052848000_cit14","unstructured":"Research and Markets.\n          .  Global Fungicides Market\n(Type, Crop Type\nand Geography - Size, Share, Global Trends, Company Profiles, Analysis,\nSegmentation and forecast, 2013\u20132020, 2014."},{"key":"2026090216052848000_cit15","unstructured":"USGS.\n          \n          Pesticide National Synthesis Project. Preliminary Pesticide Us Estimates For 2016. https:\/\/water.usgs.gov\/nawqa\/pnsp\/usage\/maps\/county-level\/."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090216052848000_cit16","article-title":"Efficacy of\nthiamethoxam to suppress soybean aphid populations in Minnesota soybean","volume":"5","author":"McCornack","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arthropod Manage. Tests"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090216052848000_cit17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s10340-011-0374-1","article-title":"Effects of neonicitinoid seed treatments on soybean\naphid and its natural enemies","volume":"85","author":"Seagraves","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. 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Sci."},{"key":"2026090216052848000_cit20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsoil.2016.02.008","article-title":"Influence of pesticide\nseed treatments on rhizosphere\nfungal and bacterial communities and leaf fungal endophyte communities\nin maize and soybean","volume":"102","author":"Nettles","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Soil Ecol."},{"key":"2026090216052848000_cit21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2012.09.082","article-title":"Kresoxim methyl deposition,\ndrift and runoff in a vineyard catchment","volume":"442","author":"Lefrancq","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci.\nTotal Environ."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026090216052848000_cit22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2012.04.023","article-title":"Occurrence of boscalid\nand other selected fungicides in surface water and groundwater in\nthree targeted use areas in the United States","volume":"89","author":"Reilly","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090216052848000_cit23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1017\/S0021859605005708","article-title":"Crop losses\nto pests","volume":"144","author":"Oerke","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Agric. 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Bull."},{"key":"2026090216052848000_cit39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2013.01.021","article-title":"Occurrence and persistence\nof fungicides in bed sediments and suspended solids from three targeted\nuse areas in the United States","volume":"447C","author":"Smalling","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"2026090216052848000_cit40","unstructured":"FOOTPRINT The FOOTPRINT.\n          \n          Pesticide Properties\nDatabase. Database collated by the University of Hertfordshire as part of the EU-funded\nFOOTPRINT project (FP6-SSP-022704). www.eu-footprint.org\/ppdb.html."},{"key":"2026090216052848000_cit41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1021\/es4048329","article-title":"Fungicide field concentrations\nexceed FOCUS surface water predictions: urgent need of model improvement","volume":"48","author":"Kna\u0308bel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. 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