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A wide variety of antifungal chemical agents are available; however, the side effects of the use of these disinfectants often result in the generation of toxic residues raising major environmental concerns. Herein, atmospheric pressure air plasma generated by a surface barrier discharge (SBD) is presented as an innovative green chemical method for fungal inactivation, with the potential to become an effective replacement for conventional chemical disinfection agents, such as Virkon. Using Aspergillus flavus spores as a target organism, a comparison of plasma based decontamination techniques is reported, highlighting their respective efficiencies and uncovering their underpining inactivation pathways. Tests were performed using both direct gaseous plasma treatment and an indirect treatment using a plasma activated aqueous broth solution (PAB). Concentrations of gaseous ozone and nitrogen oxides were determined with Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Optical emission spectroscopy (OES), whereas hydrogen peroxides, nitrites, nitrates, and pH were measured in PAB. It is demonstrated that direct exposure to the gaseous plasma effluent exhibited superior decontamination efficiency and eliminated spores more effectively than Virkon, a finding attributed to the production of a wide variety of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species within the plasma.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.8b05386","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,18]],"date-time":"2019-01-18T14:25:32Z","timestamp":1547821532000},"page":"1893-1904","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":101,"title":["Effective\nFungal Spore Inactivation with an Environmentally\nFriendly Approach Based on Atmospheric Pressure Air Plasma"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"53","author":[{"given":"Natas\u030ca","family":"Hojnik","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Jozef Stefan Institute , ,","place":["Ljubljana, Slovenia"]},{"name":"Jozef Stefan International Postgraduate School , ,","place":["Ljubljana, Slovenia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martina","family":"Modic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jozef Stefan Institute , ,","place":["Ljubljana, Slovenia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuan","family":"Ni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Liverpool , , ,","place":["Liverpool, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gregor","family":"Filipic\u030c","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jozef Stefan Institute , ,","place":["Ljubljana, Slovenia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1957-0789","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Uros\u030c","family":"Cvelbar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jozef Stefan Institute , ,","place":["Ljubljana, Slovenia"]},{"name":"Jozef Stefan International Postgraduate School , ,","place":["Ljubljana, Slovenia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James L.","family":"Walsh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Liverpool , , ,","place":["Liverpool, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026090118143084300_cit1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.00377","article-title":"Review:\nDiversity of Microorganisms\nin Global Fermented Foods and Beverages","volume":"7","author":"Tamang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front.\nMicrobiol."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026090118143084300_cit2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1021\/jf60170a024","article-title":"Production\nof blue cheese flavor via submerged fermentation by Penicillium roqueforti","volume":"18","author":"Nelson","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. 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J."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026090118143084300_cit19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-0307.12302","article-title":"Use of ozone in the dairy industry:\nA review","volume":"69","author":"Varga","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Dairy Technol."},{"key":"2026090118143084300_cit20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.21775\/9781910190258.11","article-title":"Current\nTechnology\nand Applications of Gas Plasma for Disinfection of Agricultural Products:\nDisinfection of Fungal Spores on Citrus unshiu by Atmospheric Pressure\nDielectric Barrier Discharge","author":"Yagyu","year":"2016"},{"key":"2026090118143084300_cit21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-801365-6.00001-9","article-title":"Chapter 1 - Plasma in Food and Agriculture","volume-title":"Cold Plasma in Food and Agriculture","author":"Misra","year":"2016"},{"key":"2026090118143084300_cit22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-food-022811-101132","article-title":"Cold plasma\ndecontamination of foods","volume":"3","author":"Niemira","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. 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Rep."},{"key":"2026090118143084300_cit31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1002\/9783527649525.ch6","article-title":"Elementary\nChemical and Physical Phenomena in Electrical Discharge Plasma in\nGas\u2013Liquid Environments and in Liquids","volume-title":"Plasma Chemistry and Catalysis in Gases and Liquids","author":"Locke","year":"2012"},{"key":"2026090118143084300_cit32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1002\/9783527649525.ch8","article-title":"Biological\nEffects of Electrical Discharge Plasma in Water and in Gas\u2013Liquid\nEnvironments","volume-title":"Plasma Chemistry and Catalysis\nin Gases and Liquids","author":"Lukes","year":"2012"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090118143084300_cit33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"015019","DOI":"10.1088\/0963-0252\/23\/1\/015019","article-title":"Aqueous-phase\nchemistry and bactericidal effects from an air discharge plasma in\ncontact with water: evidence for the formation of peroxynitrite through\na pseudo-second-order post-discharge reaction of H2O2 and HNO2","volume":"23","author":"Lukes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Plasma Sources\nSci. Technol."},{"key":"2026090118143084300_cit34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2016.05.015","article-title":"Inactivation of aflatoxigenic\nfungi\n(Aspergillus spp.) on granular food model, maize, in an atmospheric\npressure fluidized bed plasma system","volume":"70","author":"Dasan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"issue":"15","key":"2026090118143084300_cit35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153708","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4824892","article-title":"Inactivation effects of neutral\nreactive-oxygen\nspecies on Penicillium digitatum spores using non-equilibrium atmospheric-pressure\noxygen radical source","volume":"103","author":"Hashizume","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090118143084300_cit36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"013704","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4733387","article-title":"Real-time in situ electron spin resonance\nmeasurements on fungal\nspores of Penicillium digitatum during exposure of oxygen plasmas","volume":"101","author":"Ishikawa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"issue":"15","key":"2026090118143084300_cit37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3204","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.7060","article-title":"Inhibitory effect of double atmospheric\npressure argon cold plasma on spores and mycotoxin production of Aspergillus\nniger contaminating date palm fruits","volume":"95","author":"Ouf","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Sci.\nFood Agric."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026090118143084300_cit38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2012.12.002","article-title":"Inhibition of Aspergillus\nflavus on agar media and brown rice cereal bars using cold atmospheric\nplasma treatment","volume":"161","author":"Suhem","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090118143084300_cit39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"010209","DOI":"10.7567\/JJAP.53.010209","article-title":"Oxidation mechanism of Penicillium digitatum spores\nthrough neutral oxygen radicals","volume":"53","author":"Hashizume","year":"2014","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl.\nPhys."},{"issue":"16","key":"2026090118143084300_cit40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161501","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3582923","article-title":"The cold and atmospheric-pressure air surface barrier discharge plasma\nfor large-area sterilization applications","volume":"98","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl.\nPhys. Lett."},{"issue":"5","key":"2026090118143084300_cit41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins9050151","article-title":"Mycotoxin Decontamination of Food:\nCold Atmospheric\nPressure Plasma versus \u201cClassic\u201d Decontamination","volume":"9","author":"Hojnik","year":"2017","journal-title":"Toxins"},{"issue":"35","key":"2026090118143084300_cit42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"355203","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/49\/35\/355203","article-title":"A solar powered\nhandheld plasma source for microbial decontamination applications","volume":"49","author":"Ni","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Phys. 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Milk Food Technol."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026090118143084300_cit45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/S0953-7562(89)80068-1","article-title":"Effect of ultraviolet\nirradiation on germination and growth in Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium\nnotatum","volume":"92","author":"Osman","year":"1989","journal-title":"Mycol. Res."},{"issue":"20","key":"2026090118143084300_cit46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203302","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4952574","article-title":"Numerical investigation\nof the spatiotemporal distribution\nof chemical species in an atmospheric surface barrier-discharge","volume":"119","author":"Hasan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"issue":"10","key":"2026090118143084300_cit47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103028","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/14\/10\/103028","article-title":"The dynamics of ozone generation and mode transition\nin air surface micro-discharge plasma at atmospheric pressure","volume":"14","author":"Shimizu","year":"2012","journal-title":"New J. Phys."},{"issue":"9","key":"2026090118143084300_cit48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1242","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.2001.tb15196.x","article-title":"Microbiological\naspects of ozone\napplications in food: A review","volume":"66","author":"Khadre","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"issue":"22","key":"2026090118143084300_cit49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"222001","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/43\/22\/222001","article-title":"Plasma agents in bio-decontamination\nby dc discharges in atmospheric air","volume":"43","author":"Machala","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Phys.\nD: Appl. 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Biophys.\nActa, Proteins Proteomics"},{"key":"2026090118143084300_cit55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2016.09.028","article-title":"Nonthermal\nplasma treatment of Aspergillus\nspp. spores on hazelnuts in an atmospheric pressure fluidized bed\nplasma system: Impact of process parameters and surveillance of the\nresidual viability of spores","volume":"196","author":"Dasan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"2026090118143084300_cit56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2014.09.006","article-title":"Ultraviolet-C\nlight inactivation\nof Penicillium expansum on fruit surfaces","volume":"50","author":"Syamaladevi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food\nControl"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026090118143084300_cit57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpme.2015.10.001","article-title":"Chemical analysis\nof reactive species and antimicrobial activity of water treated by\nnanosecond pulsed DBD air plasma","volume":"3","author":"Laurita","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clinical Plasma\nMedicine"},{"issue":"47","key":"2026090118143084300_cit58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"472001","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/44\/47\/472001","article-title":"Long-term antibacterial\nefficacy\nof air plasma-activated water","volume":"44","author":"Traylor","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Phys. D:\nAppl. Phys."},{"issue":"42","key":"2026090118143084300_cit59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"425201","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/45\/42\/425201","article-title":"Plasma\nchemistry model of surface microdischarge in humid air and dynamics\nof reactive neutral species","volume":"45","author":"Sakiyama","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Phys. D: Appl.\nPhys."},{"issue":"49","key":"2026090118143084300_cit60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"495201","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/48\/49\/495201","article-title":"Physicochemical\nprocesses in the indirect interaction between surface air plasma and\ndeionized water","volume":"48","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Phys. D: Appl. 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