{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T21:18:09Z","timestamp":1788383889914,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,21]],"date-time":"2017-01-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1484956800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":366,"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/page\/policy\/authorchoice_termsofuse.html"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,17]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling is a useful tool for studying the spillage, dispersion, and related safety issues of liquefied natural gas (LNG). This paper presents a CFD code that directly models the complete spill and pool formation process (direct CFD simulation method), taking into consideration heat and mass transfer governing equations and the Monin\u2212Obukhov similarity theory for atmospheric stability. The model was validated against experimental data from the Burro test series under atmospheric conditions which allowed the LNG dispersion to be predominately gravity-driven. The direct CFD simulation method clearly provides better predictions than the conventional approach, which simply estimates the pool size from natural gas inlet conditions and uses a fixed vaporization rate. The direct CFD simulation method was further applied to investigate the effect of an impoundment on LNG spill and dispersion mitigation. It was clearly shown that an impoundment can confine the LNG spill and control the dispersion by both increasing air flow turbulence and generating a swirl\/recirculation at the upwind walls, resulting in reduction of vapor cloud dispersion by up to 55%.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.iecr.5b04490","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,21]],"date-time":"2016-01-21T13:20:00Z","timestamp":1453382400000},"page":"1778-1787","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Modeling of Liquefied Natural Gas Release and Dispersion:\nIncorporating a Direct Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation Method\nfor LNG Spill and Pool Formation"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"55","author":[{"given":"Walter Chukwunonso","family":"Ikealumba","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Curtin University , , GPO Box U1987, , ,","place":["Perth, Western Australia, Australia, 6845"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongwei","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Curtin University , , GPO Box U1987, , ,","place":["Perth, Western Australia, Australia, 6845"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit1","unstructured":"BP.\n          \n          Statistical\nreview of world energy 2013; British Petroleum: London, 2013."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit2","unstructured":"IEA.\n          \n          World Energy Outlook 2012; International Energy Agency: Paris, 2012."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2006.10.029","article-title":"LNG fires:\nA review of experimental results, models and hazard prediction challenges","volume":"140","author":"Raj","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2006.10.042","article-title":"Lessons learned from LNG safety research","volume":"140","author":"Koopman","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2049","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2010.01.022","article-title":"Cold recovery during regasification of LNG part one: Cold utilization\nfar from the regasification facility","volume":"35","author":"La Rocca","year":"2010","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7412","DOI":"10.1021\/ie1008426","article-title":"Thermodynamic-Analysis-Based\nDesign and Operation for Boil-Off Gas Flare Minimization at LNG Receiving\nTerminals","volume":"49","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ind. Eng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jlp.2010.04.004","article-title":"Safety design approach\nfor onshore modularized LNG\nliquefaction plant","volume":"23","author":"Tanabe","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Loss Prev. Process Ind."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2012.08.123","article-title":"Fire and explosion\nrisk analysis and evaluation for LNG ships","volume":"45","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3065","DOI":"10.1021\/ie302877g","article-title":"Current status and perspectives of\nliquefied natural gas (LNG) plant design","volume":"52","author":"Lim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ind.\nEng. Chem. Res."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3556","DOI":"10.1021\/ef500626u","article-title":"Some Recent Advances in Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Production, Spill,\nDispersion, and Safety","volume":"28","author":"Ikealumba","year":"2014","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit11","unstructured":"Koopman, R. P.; Baker, J.; Cederwall, R. T.; Goldwire, H. C. J.; Hogan, W. J.; Kamppinen, L. M.; Kiefer, R. D.; McClure, J. W.; McRae, T. G.; Morgan, D. L.\n          Burro\nseries data\nreport\u2500LLNL\/NWC 1980 LNG spill tests, UCID-19075,\nVols. 1 and 2; Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory: Berkeley, CA, 1982."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit13","unstructured":"Goldwire, H. C. J.; Rodean, H. C.; Cederwall, R. T.; Kansa, E. J.; Koopman, R. P.; McClure, J. W.; McRae, T. G.; Morris, L. K.; Kamppinen, L.; Kiefer, R. D.\n          Coyote\nseries data\nreport: LLNL\/NWC 1981 LNG spill tests dispersion, vapor burn, and\nrapid-phase-transition, UCID-19953, Vols. 1 and 2; Lawrence Livermore National Labarotory: Berkeley, CA, 1983."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit15","unstructured":"Brown, T. C.; Cederwall, R. T.; Chan, S. T.; Ermak, D. L.; Koopman, R. P.; Lamson, K. C.; McClure, J. W.; Morris, L. K.\n          Falcon series data\nreport: 1987 LNG vapor barrier verification field trials,\nReport GRI-89\/0138; Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory: Berkeley, CA, 1990."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit16","unstructured":"Colenbrander, G. W.; Evans, A.; Puttock, J. S.\n          Spill\ntests of LNG and refrigerated liquid propane on the sea, Maplin Sands\n1980, Dispersion Data Digest, Trial 27, Report TNER.84.028; Thornton Research Centre: Chester,\nUK, 1984."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit17","unstructured":"Feldbauer, G. F.; Heigl, J. J.; McQueen, W.; Whipp, R. H.; W.G, M.\n          Spills of LNG on Water: Vaporization\n& Downwind Drift of Combustible Mixtures, Report EE61E-72; ESSO Research and Engineering Co.: Florham Park, NJ, 1972."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit18","unstructured":"Kneebone, A.; Prew, L. R.\n          Shipboard jettison\ntest of LNG onto the sea.  Proceedings on the\n4th Intenational Conference on LNG, Algiers, Nov 13\u201314, 1974; pp 1\u201325."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit19","unstructured":"Koopman, R. P.; Bowman, B. R.; Ermak, D. L.\n          Data and calculations\nof dispersion of 5m3 LNG spill tests; Lawrence\nLivermore National Laboratory: Berkeley,\nCA, 1979."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jlp.2008.12.004","article-title":"Application\nof computational fluid dynamics for LNG vapor dispersion modeling:\nA study of key parameters","volume":"22","author":"Cormier","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Loss Prev. Process\nInd."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit21","unstructured":"Witlox, H. W. M.; Oke, A.\n          Verification and validation\nof consequence and risk models for accidental releases of hazardous\nchemicals to the atmosphere; DNV Software: London, UK, 2007."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8046","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2008.06.038","article-title":"CFD and Gaussian\natmospheric dispersion\nmodels: A comparison for leak from carbon dioxide transportation and\nstorage facilities","volume":"42","author":"Mazzoldi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2008.02.037","article-title":"Application of CFD (Fluent) to LNG\nspills into geometrically complex environments","volume":"159","author":"Gavelli","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Hazard. 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Process Ind."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jlp.2012.10.002","article-title":"Computational fluid\ndynamics analysis of liquefied natural gas dispersion for risk assessment\nstrategies","volume":"26","author":"Sun","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Loss Prev. Process Ind."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2005.10.008","article-title":"A review of\nlarge-scale LNG spills: Experiments and modeling","volume":"132","author":"Luketa-Hanlin","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2006.10.050","article-title":"Coupling\ndynamic blow down and pool evaporation model for LNG","volume":"140","author":"Woodward","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hazard. 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Heat Mass Transfer"},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-009-7151-6_11","article-title":"Further Analysis\nof Catastrophic LNG Spill Vapor Dispersion","volume-title":"Heavy Gas and Risk Assessment II","author":"Havens","year":"1983"},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-7985-8_8","article-title":"Interfacial Transport","volume-title":"Thermo-Fluid Dynamics of Two-Phase Flow","author":"Ishii","year":"2011"},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00240838","article-title":"A review\nof flux-profile relationships","volume":"7","author":"Dyer","year":"1974","journal-title":"Boundary-Layer\nMeteorol."},{"key":"2026090216371142000_cit38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-006-9048-6","article-title":"50 Years of\nthe Monin\u2013Obukhov Similarity Theory","volume":"119","author":"Foken","year":"2006","journal-title":"Boundary-Layer Meteorol."}],"container-title":["Industrial &amp; Engineering Chemistry Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1021\/acs.iecr.5b04490","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"unspecified"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/iecred\/article-pdf\/55\/6\/1778\/67006376\/acs.iecr.5b04490.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/iecred\/article-pdf\/55\/6\/1778\/67006376\/acs.iecr.5b04490.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T20:37:22Z","timestamp":1788381442000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/iecred\/article\/55\/6\/1778\/855448\/Modeling-of-Liquefied-Natural-Gas-Release-and"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,21]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,21]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,17]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acs.iecr.5b04490","relation":{},"ISSN":["0888-5885","1520-5045"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0888-5885","type":"print"},{"value":"1520-5045","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,21]]}}}