{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T23:44:39Z","timestamp":1792799079775,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,15]],"date-time":"2020-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1594771200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":14,"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/page\/policy\/authorchoice_ccby_termsofuse.html"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010663","name":"H2020 European Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["787446 GB-CORRELATE"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["787446 GB-CORRELATE"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,28]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>It is well-known that grain boundaries (GBs) increase the electrical resistivity of metals due to their enhanced electron scattering. The resistivity values of GBs are determined by their atomic structure; therefore, assessing the local resistivity of GBs is highly significant for understanding structure\u2013property relationships. So far, the local electrical characterization of an individual GB has not received much attention, mainly due to the limited accuracy of the applied techniques, which were not sensitive enough to detect the subtle differences in electrical resistivity values of highly symmetric GBs. Here, we introduce a detailed methodology to probe in situ or ex situ the local resistivity of individual GBs in Cu, a metallic model system we choose due to its low resistance. Both bulk Cu samples and thin films are investigated, and different approaches to obtain reliable and accurate resistivity measurements are described, involving the van der Pauw technique for macroscopic measurements as well as two different four-point-probe techniques for local in situ measurements performed inside a scanning electron microscope. The in situ contacts are realized with needles accurately positioned by piezodriven micromanipulators. Resistivity results obtained on coincidence site lattice GBs (incoherent \u03a33 and asymmetric \u03a35) are reported and discussed. In addition, the key experimental details as well as pitfalls in the measurement of individual GB resistivity are addressed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acsaelm.0c00311","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,1]],"date-time":"2020-07-01T22:02:41Z","timestamp":1593640961000},"page":"2049-2056","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":62,"title":["Approaches to Measure\nthe Resistivity of Grain Boundaries\nin Metals with High Sensitivity and Spatial Resolution: A Case Study\nEmploying Cu"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"2","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1353-7742","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Hanna","family":"Bishara","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Max-Planck-Institut fu\u0308r Eisenforschung GmbH , ,","place":["Du\u0308sseldorf, Germany, 40237"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matteo","family":"Ghidelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Max-Planck-Institut fu\u0308r Eisenforschung GmbH , ,","place":["Du\u0308sseldorf, Germany, 40237"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gerhard","family":"Dehm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Max-Planck-Institut fu\u0308r Eisenforschung GmbH , ,","place":["Du\u0308sseldorf, Germany, 40237"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,1]]},"reference":[{"issue":"161","key":"2026090215435675500_cit1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1080\/14786436908225855","article-title":"The effect\nof grain boundaries on\nthe electrical resistivity of polycrystalline copper and aluminium","volume":"19","author":"Andrews","year":"1969","journal-title":"Philos. Mag."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026090215435675500_cit2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1382","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevB.1.1382","article-title":"Electrical-Resistivity\nModel for Polycrystalline Films:\nthe Case of Arbitrary Reflection at External Surfaces","volume":"1","author":"Mayadas","year":"1970","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. B"},{"issue":"15","key":"2026090215435675500_cit3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2838","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1703844","article-title":"Influence of surface\nand grain-boundary scattering on the resistivity of copper in reduced\ndimensions","volume":"84","author":"Wu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026090215435675500_cit4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"023706","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1834982","article-title":"Comprehensive\nstudy of the resistivity of copper wires with lateral dimensions of\n100 nm and smaller","volume":"97","author":"Steinho\u0308gl","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"issue":"9","key":"2026090215435675500_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1687","DOI":"10.1088\/0305-4608\/5\/9\/009","article-title":"Grain boundary contribution\nto the electrical conductivity\nof polycrystalline Cu films","volume":"5","author":"Mannan","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Phys. F: Met.\nPhys."},{"key":"2026090215435675500_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"T120","DOI":"10.1109\/VLSIT.2015.7223712","article-title":"Resistivity of copper\ninterconnects\nbeyond the 7 nm node","author":"Pyzyna","year":"2015","journal-title":"2015 Symposium on VLSI\nTechnology"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026090215435675500_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"051506","DOI":"10.1116\/1.4959555","article-title":"Low electrical resistivity\nin thin\nand ultrathin copper layers grown by high power impulse magnetron\nsputtering","volume":"34","author":"Cemin","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A"},{"key":"2026090215435675500_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"011102","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4974032","article-title":"Size effects and charge\ntransport in metals: Quantum\ntheory of the resistivity of nanometric metallic structures arising\nfrom electron scattering by grain boundaries and by rough surfaces","volume":"4","author":"Munoz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Rev."},{"issue":"25","key":"2026090215435675500_cit9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"255502","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.121.255502","article-title":"Segregation-Induced\nNanofaceting Transition at an Asymmetric Tilt Grain Boundary in Copper","volume":"121","author":"Peter","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090215435675500_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"015702","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.121.015702","article-title":"Strain-Induced Asymmetric\nLine Segregation at Faceted Si Grain Boundaries","volume":"121","author":"Liebscher","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090215435675500_cit11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-02937-2","article-title":"Predicting\nphase behavior of grain boundaries with evolutionary search and machine\nlearning","volume":"9","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"issue":"17","key":"2026090215435675500_cit12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8253","DOI":"10.1039\/C8NR00271A","article-title":"Grain boundary\nphases in bcc metals","volume":"10","author":"Frolov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"2026090215435675500_cit13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2018.09.045","article-title":"Dislocation\nslip transmission through a coherent \u03a33{111} copper twin boundary:\nStrain rate sensitivity, activation volume and strength distribution\nfunction","volume":"161","author":"Malyar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"issue":"8","key":"2026090215435675500_cit14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"08LB09","DOI":"10.7567\/JJAP.50.08LB09","article-title":"Structural Dependence\nof Grain Boundary Resistivity in Copper Nanowires","volume":"50","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"issue":"8","key":"2026090215435675500_cit15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3096","DOI":"10.1021\/nl101734h","article-title":"Large Discrete Resistance\nJump at Grain Boundary in Copper Nanowire","volume":"10","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nano\nLett."},{"issue":"5","key":"2026090215435675500_cit16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"052110","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3202418","article-title":"Direct detection of grain boundary scattering in damascene Cu wires\nby nanoscale four-point probe resistance measurements","volume":"95","author":"Kitaoka","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"2026090215435675500_cit17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/MSF.207-209.47","article-title":"Electrical\nResistivity and Grain Boundaries in Metals","volume":"207\u2013209","author":"Nakamichi","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Forum"},{"issue":"11","key":"2026090215435675500_cit18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1479","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-6160(66)90168-4","article-title":"The structure\nof high-angle grain boundaries","volume":"14","author":"Brandon","year":"1966","journal-title":"Acta Metall."},{"issue":"5","key":"2026090215435675500_cit19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"054018","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.5.054018","article-title":"Reducing Grain-Boundary Resistivity\nof Copper Nanowires by Doping","volume":"5","author":"Cesar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Appl."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026090215435675500_cit20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"044007","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.2.044007","article-title":"Calculated Resistances of Single\nGrain Boundaries in Copper","volume":"2","author":"Cesar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Appl."},{"key":"2026090215435675500_cit21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"044005","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.9.044005","article-title":"Grain-Boundary\nResistance in Copper Interconnects: From an Atomistic Model to a Neural\nNetwork","volume":"9","author":"Valencia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Appl."},{"key":"2026090215435675500_cit22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scriptamat.2016.06.008","article-title":"Daniel,\nInterplay between grain boundary segregation and electrical resistivity\nin dilute nanocrystalline Cu alloys","volume":"123","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Scr. Mater."},{"issue":"171","key":"2026090215435675500_cit23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1080\/14786437008238442","article-title":"Grain boundary\nresistivity of aluminium","volume":"21","author":"Kasen","year":"1970","journal-title":"Philos. Mag."},{"issue":"5669","key":"2026090215435675500_cit24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1092905","article-title":"Ultrahigh\nStrength and High Electrical Conductivity in Copper","volume":"304","author":"Lu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"9","key":"2026090215435675500_cit25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1080\/14786435.2019.1580399","article-title":"The specific grain-boundary\nelectrical resistivity of Ni","volume":"99","author":"Bakonyi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Philos. Mag."},{"issue":"18","key":"2026090215435675500_cit26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3346","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1473868","article-title":"Size and grain-boundary effects of a gold nanowire\nmeasured by conducting atomic force microscopy","volume":"80","author":"Bietsch","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"issue":"11","key":"2026090215435675500_cit27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113124","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2355435","article-title":"Influence of phonon,\ngeometry, impurity, and grain size on Copper line resistivity","volume":"89","author":"Plombon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090215435675500_cit28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.3139\/120.111286","article-title":"Synthesis\nand mechanical testing of grain boundaries at the micro and sub-micro\nscale","volume":"61","author":"Malyar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Materialpruefung"},{"key":"2026090215435675500_cit29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"085101","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4942216","article-title":"Electron mean\nfree path in elemental metals","volume":"119","author":"Gall","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"2026090215435675500_cit30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"050901","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5133671","article-title":"The search\nfor the most conductive metal for narrow interconnect lines","volume":"127","author":"Gall","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"2026090215435675500_cit31","first-page":"1","article-title":"A method for measuring specific resistivity and hall\neffect of discs of arbitrary shapes","volume":"13","author":"van der Pauw","year":"1958","journal-title":"Philips\nRes. Repts"},{"issue":"22","key":"2026090215435675500_cit32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"223201","DOI":"10.1088\/0953-8984\/27\/22\/223201","article-title":"The 100th\nanniversary of the four-point probe technique: the role of probe geometries\nin isotropic and anisotropic systems","volume":"27","author":"Miccoli","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Phys.:\nCondens. Matter"},{"key":"2026090215435675500_cit33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matlet.2013.04.058","article-title":"Anisotropic\nelectrical resistivity\nduring annealing of oriented columnar titanium films","volume":"105","author":"Martin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mater. Lett."},{"key":"2026090215435675500_cit34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2020.02.064","article-title":"Tantalum\nand Zirconium induced structural transitions at complex [111] tilt\ngrain boundaries in Copper","volume":"190","author":"Meiners","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"key":"2026090215435675500_cit35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actamat.2017.05.026","article-title":"Microstructural evolution\nand solid state dewetting of epitaxial Al thin films on sapphire (\u03b5-Al2O3)","volume":"133","author":"Hieke","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Mater."},{"issue":"6","key":"2026090215435675500_cit36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2780","DOI":"10.1021\/cg1003808","article-title":"Copper Better than\nSilver: Electrical Resistivity of\nthe Grain-Free Single-Crystal Copper Wire","volume":"10","author":"Cho","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cryst.\nGrowth Des."},{"key":"2026090215435675500_cit37","volume-title":"Smithells Metals Reference\nBook","author":"Brandes","year":"1998","edition":"7"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026090215435675500_cit38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1080\/01418639508241899","article-title":"Growth and\nstructure\nof copper thin films deposited on (0001) sapphire by molecular beam\nepitaxy","volume":"71","author":"Dehm","year":"1995","journal-title":"Philos. Mag. B"},{"key":"2026090215435675500_cit39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.3139\/146.101027","article-title":"Obtaining\ndifferent orientation relationships for Cu films grown on (0001) \u03b1-Al\n2 O 3 substrates by magnetron sputtering","volume":"96","author":"Dehm","year":"2005","journal-title":"Z.\nMetallkd."},{"key":"2026090215435675500_cit40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jallcom.2014.08.037","article-title":"On the Cu\u2013Ga system: Electromotive\nforce measurement and thermodynamic reoptimization","volume":"621","author":"Jendrzejczyk-Handzlik","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Alloys Compd."},{"issue":"7","key":"2026090215435675500_cit41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3362","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-015-9651-3","article-title":"Cu\u2013Ga\u2013In\nthermodynamics:\nexperimental study, modeling, and implications for photovoltaics","volume":"51","author":"Muzzillo","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."}],"container-title":["ACS Applied Electronic Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1021\/acsaelm.0c00311","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"unspecified"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/aaembp\/article-pdf\/2\/7\/2049\/66987622\/acsaelm.0c00311.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/aaembp\/article-pdf\/2\/7\/2049\/66987622\/acsaelm.0c00311.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T19:44:04Z","timestamp":1788378244000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/aaembp\/article\/2\/7\/2049\/609509\/Approaches-to-Measure-the-Resistivity-of-Grain"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,1]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,28]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsaelm.0c00311","relation":{},"ISSN":["2637-6113"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2637-6113","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,1]]}}}