{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T19:29:04Z","timestamp":1786994944048,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"42","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]],"date-time":"2020-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1601337600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]],"date-time":"2020-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1601337600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]],"date-time":"2020-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1601337600000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-045"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100005825","name":"National Institute of Food and Agriculture","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2019-67021-29858"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019-67021-29858"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100005825","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01AI126357"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI126357"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000060","name":"National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01AI128750"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI128750"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000060","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006292","name":"Infectious Diseases Society of America","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006292","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,21]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Due to increasing reports of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Vibrio cholerae O1, the goal of this study was to characterize the in vitro antimicrobial activity of chitosan microparticles (CMs) to evaluate their potential as a novel therapeutic agent for cholera. We examined the antimicrobial activity of CMs against toxigenic V. cholerae O1 using direct enumeration, microscopy, and fluorescence microplate assays. Bacterial viability kinetics were measured with different concentrations of CMs, solution pH, and salt content using a live\/dead staining technique. Growth inhibition of CM-exposed V. cholerae strains was conducted using a redox-sensitive stain and compared between wild-type and isogenic outer membrane (OM) mutants. CM concentrations above 0.1 wt % were sufficient to kill V. cholerae O1 suspensions with approximately 108 CFU\/mL within 3 h. The nonviable cells demonstrated increased OM permeability that corresponded to gross morphological changes observed through scanning electron microscopy. CMs exhibited dose-dependent bactericidal activity that increased predictably at lower pH and decreased with salt addition. V. cholerae O1 strains lacking O-antigen were twice as susceptible to growth inhibition by CMs, whereas those with glycine modification to lipid A were ten times more resistant. We propose that CMs exert vibriocidal activity via electrostatic surface interactions between their positively charged amine groups and the negatively charged Gram-negative bacterial OM, resulting in disruption, increased permeability, decreased redox metabolism, and subsequent loss of cellular viability. Further research should be conducted in vivo to evaluate the efficacy of CMs as luminal agents to treat infections caused by MDR, toxigenic V. cholerae and other diarrheal pathogens.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.0c14313","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]],"date-time":"2020-09-29T14:43:52Z","timestamp":1601390632000},"page":"47278-47288","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Characterization\nof the Vibriocidal Activity of Chitosan\nMicroparticles: A Potential Therapeutic Agent for Emerging Multidrug-Resistant\nCholera Infections"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Thomas\nA.","family":"Weppelmann","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of South Florida , , , ,","place":["Tampa, Florida, United States, 33620"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4337-0426","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Kwangcheol Casey","family":"Jeong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Florida , , , ,","place":["Gainesville, Florida, United States, 32611"]},{"name":"University of Florida , , , ,","place":["Gainesville, Florida, United States, 32611"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Afsar","family":"Ali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Florida , , , ,","place":["Gainesville, Florida, United States, 32611"]},{"name":"University of Florida , , , ,","place":["Gainesville, Florida, United States, 32611"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit1","unstructured":"World Health Organization\n          . WHO Cholera Fact\nSheet, 2019. http:\/\/www.who.int\/mediacentre\/factsheets\/fs107\/en\/ (accessed Jan 02, 2020)."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-018-0005-8","article-title":"Vibrio spp. Infections","volume":"4","author":"Baker-Austin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit3","first-page":"871","article-title":"Antibiotic Therapy of Cholera","volume":"36","author":"Lindenbaum","year":"1967","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6226","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1900141116","article-title":"Genomic Plasticity Associated with\nAntimicrobial Resistance in Vibrio cholerae","volume":"116","author":"Verma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.023051-0","article-title":"Antibiotic Resistance\nMechanisms of Vibrio cholerae","volume":"60","author":"Kitaoka","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6077","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S38330","article-title":"Design\nand Application of Chitosan Microspheres as Oral and Nasal Vaccine\nCarriers: an Updated Review","volume":"7","author":"Islam","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6017","DOI":"10.1021\/cr030441b","article-title":"Chitosan\nChemistry and Pharmaceutical Perspectives","volume":"104","author":"Kumar","year":"2004","journal-title":"Chem.\nRev."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.3109\/02652049709006820","article-title":"Chitosan:\nProperties, Preparations and Application to Microparticulate Systems","volume":"14","author":"Kas","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Microencapsulation"},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.2174\/1389201033489748","article-title":"Application\nof Chitin and Chitosan\nDerivatives in the Pharmaceutical Field","volume":"4","author":"Kato","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr.\nPharm. Biotechnol."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0092723","article-title":"Underlying Mechanism\nof Antimicrobial Activity of Chitosan Microparticles and Implications\nfor the Treatment of Infectious Diseases","volume":"9","author":"Jeon","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS\nOne"},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02856-14","article-title":"Application\nof Chitosan Microparticles for Reduction of Vibrio Species in Seawater and Live Oysters (Crassostrea virginica)","volume":"81","author":"Fang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2010.09.012","article-title":"Antimicrobial Properties\nof Chitosan and Mode of Action: a State of the Art Review","volume":"144","author":"Kong","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.1111\/1346-8138.12315","article-title":"Influence\nof Abiotic Factors on the Antimicrobial Activity of Chitosan","volume":"40","author":"Tavaria","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Dermatol."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1016\/S0142-9612(00)00231-3","article-title":"Chitosan Microparticles for Oral\nVaccination: Preparation, Characterization and Preliminary in vivo\nUptake Studies in Murine Peyer\u2019s Patches","volume":"22","author":"Van\nder Lubben","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3652","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.183.12.3652-3662.2001","article-title":"Characterization\nof the Role of the\nToxR-modulated Outer Membrane Porins OmpU and OmpT in Vibrio cholerae Virulence","volume":"183","author":"Provenzano","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4310","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.59.12.4310-4317.1991","article-title":"Construction of\nan eae Deletion Mutant\nof Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli by Using a Positive-selection\nSuicide Vector","volume":"59","author":"Donnenberg","year":"1991","journal-title":"Infect. 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Bacteriol."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit21","first-page":"1108","article-title":"Susceptibility\nTest Methods: Dilution and Disk Diffusion Method","volume-title":"Manual of clinical microbiology","author":"Jorgensen","year":"2003","edition":"8"},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1099\/mic.0.000786","article-title":"Assessment of Bacterial Viability: a Comprehensive\nReview on Recent Advances and Challenges","volume":"165","author":"Kumar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.13.39","article-title":"Pharmacology\nof Polymyxins: New Insights into an \u2019Old\u2019 Class of Antibiotics","volume":"8","author":"Velkov","year":"2013","journal-title":"Fut. Microbiol."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2013.0931","article-title":"Interaction of Colloidal Nanoparticles with Their Local\nEnvironment: the (Ionic) Nanoenvironment Around Nanoparticles is Different\nfrom Bulk and Determines the Physico-chemical Properties of the Nanoparticles","volume":"11","author":"Pfeiffer","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. R. Soc., Interface"},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5396","DOI":"10.1039\/C6CP08174F","article-title":"Electrical Double Layer Properties of Spherical Oxide\nNanoparticles","volume":"19","author":"Hunley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Chem. 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Polym."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.69.1.435-445.2001","article-title":"Characterization of Vibrio cholerae O1 El tor galU and galE Mutants:\nInfluence on Lipopolysaccharide Structure, Colonization, and Biofilm\nFormation","volume":"69","author":"Nesper","year":"2001","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21205","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.RA117.000131","article-title":"Responsible\nfor Polymyxin Resistance\nin Pandemic Vibrio cholerae, is a Glycyltransferase\nDistantly Related to Lipid A Late Acyltransferases","volume":"292","author":"Henderson","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21216","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.H117.000868","article-title":"Vibrio cholerae Amino Acids Go on the Defense","volume":"292","author":"Bengoechea","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1021\/la504407v","article-title":"Effect of Divalent\nCation Removal on the Structure of Gram-negative Bacterial Outer Membrane\nModels","volume":"31","author":"Clifton","year":"2015","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-7915.2008.00080.x","article-title":"Chitosan and Its Antimicrobial Potential--a Critical\nLiterature Survey","volume":"2","author":"Raafat","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microb. Biotechnol."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20112747","article-title":"Antimicrobial Polymers:\nThe Potential Replacement of Existing Antibiotics?","volume":"20","author":"Kamaruzzaman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics12060501","article-title":"Engineered Cationic\nAntimicrobial Peptides (eCAPs) to Combat Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria","volume":"12","author":"Deslouches","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmaceutics."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-3659(03)00126-3","article-title":"Chitosan-based Gastrointestinal\nDelivery Systems","volume":"89","author":"Hejazi","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Controlled Release"},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit36","first-page":"89","article-title":"Toxicity of\nChitosan","volume":"56","author":"Arai","year":"1968","journal-title":"Bull.. Tokai. Reg. Fish Res. Lab."},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/polym10030267","article-title":"Chitosan\nand Its Derivatives for Application in Mucoadhesive Drug Delivery\nSystems","volume":"10","author":"M.\nWays","year":"2018","journal-title":"Polymers"},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0060765","article-title":"Effects of Polyamines on Vibrio cholerae Virulence Properties","volume":"8","author":"Goforth","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10700","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.6b00894","article-title":"Chitosan\nMicroparticles Exert Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial Activity against\nAntibiotic-Resistant Micro-organisms without Increasing Resistance","volume":"8","author":"Ma","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"2026081714165495100_cit40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2017.08.082","article-title":"Application, Mode of Action, and\nIn Vivo Activity of Chitosan and its Micro- and Nanoparticles as Antimicrobial\nAgents: A Review","volume":"176","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."}],"container-title":["ACS Applied Materials &amp; Interfaces"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1021\/acsami.0c14313","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"unspecified"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/aamick\/article-pdf\/12\/42\/47278\/14127445\/am0c14313.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/aamick\/article-pdf\/12\/42\/47278\/14127445\/am0c14313.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T18:34:51Z","timestamp":1786991691000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/aamick\/article\/12\/42\/47278\/587320\/Characterization-of-the-Vibriocidal-Activity-of"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"42","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,21]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsami.0c14313","relation":{},"ISSN":["1944-8244","1944-8252"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1944-8244","type":"print"},{"value":"1944-8252","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]]}}}