{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T06:09:56Z","timestamp":1790402996602,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,25]],"date-time":"2019-03-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1553472000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":14,"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/page\/policy\/authorchoice_ccby_termsofuse.html"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000265","name":"Medical Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MR\/M015866\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MR\/M015866\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000265","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The rising incidence of antibiotic-resistant infections from contaminated surfaces in hospitals or implanted medical devices has led to increasing interest in new antibacterial surfaces. Photoactivatable surfaces that can generate cytotoxic reactive oxygen species under exposure to ambient light is a promising approach to inactivation of surface-borne microorganisms. There is growing interest in the use of quantum dots (QDs) as light-harvesting agents for photobactericidal applications, but the cadmium in commonly used QDs will restrict clinical application. Herein, the photobactericidal activity of novel polyurethane substrates containing cadmium-free QDs was tested against clinical multidrug-resistant Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and a carbapenemase-producing strain of Escherichia coli (E. coli). To enhance the capacity for reactive oxygen species generation, QDs were incorporated into the polymer with a photosensitizing dye, crystal violet. Close proximity between the QD and dye enables electron and energy transfer processes leading to generation of cytotoxic singlet oxygen and superoxide radicals. A QD solution in cyclohexane was premixed with a solution of CV in the more polar solvent, dichloromethane, to promote the formation of QD\u2013CV nanocomposite complexes via CV adsorption. This solution was then used to embed the QDs and crystal violet into medical grade polyurethane via swell\u2013encapsulation. The combination of QD and CV elicited significant synergistic antibacterial activity under visible light against MRSA within 1 h (99.98% reduction) and E. coli within 4 h (99.96% reduction). Photoluminescence lifetime and singlet oxygen phosphorescence measurements demonstrated that interaction between the QDs and the crystal violet occurs within the polymer and leads to enhanced generation of reactive oxygen species. Strong inhibition of kill was observed using the superoxide scavenger, superoxide dismutase. The efficacy of these QD\u2013CV polymer substrates, that can harvest light across the visible spectrum, against multidrug-resistant bacteria demonstrates the feasibility of this approach.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.9b02109","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,11]],"date-time":"2019-03-11T10:17:35Z","timestamp":1552299455000},"page":"12367-12378","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["Photoactivable\nPolymers Embedded with Cadmium-Free Quantum Dots and Crystal Violet: Efficient Bactericidal\nActivity against Clinical Strains of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5707-5498","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ethel G. A.","family":"Owusu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London , , Charles Bell House, 43-45 Foley Street , ,","place":["London, U.K., W1W 7TS"]},{"name":"University College London , , 20 Gordon Street , ,","place":["London, U.K., WC1H 0AJ"]},{"name":"University College London , , 256 Gray\u2019s Inn Road , ,","place":["London, U.K., WC1X 8LD"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexander J.","family":"MacRobert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London , , Charles Bell House, 43-45 Foley Street , ,","place":["London, U.K., W1W 7TS"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Imad","family":"Naasani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanoco Technologies Ltd , 46 Grafton Street , ,","place":["Manchester, U.K., M13 9NT"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ivan P.","family":"Parkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London , , 20 Gordon Street , ,","place":["London, U.K., WC1H 0AJ"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2703-7933","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Elaine","family":"Allan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London , , 256 Gray\u2019s Inn Road , ,","place":["London, U.K., WC1X 8LD"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elnaz","family":"Yaghini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London , , Charles Bell House, 43-45 Foley Street , ,","place":["London, U.K., W1W 7TS"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit1","volume-title":"Health at\na Glance: Europe 2016: State of Health in the EU Cycle","author":"Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).","year":"2016"},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1177\/003335490712200205","article-title":"Estimating Health Care-Associated\nInfections and Deaths in US Hospitals, 2002","volume":"122","author":"Klevens","year":"2007","journal-title":"Public Health Rep."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.4103\/2279-042X.176559","article-title":"Antibiotic Resistance Patterns of\nMicroorganisms Isolated from Nephrology and Kidney Transplant Wards\nof a Referral Academic Hospital","volume":"5","author":"Samanipour","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Res. Pharm.\nPract."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit4","unstructured":"Report on the Burden of Endemic Health Care-Associated\nInfection Worldwide; World Health Organization\n(WHO), 2011."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit5","article-title":"Preventing Health\nCare\u2013Associated Infections","volume-title":"Patient\nSafety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Handbook for Nurses","author":"Collins","year":"2008"},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695x.1997.tb01074.x","article-title":"A Study of Photobactericidal\nActivity in the Phenothiazinium Series","volume":"19","author":"Wainwright","year":"1997","journal-title":"FEMS\nImmunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ibiod.2003.11.006","article-title":"Photosensitising\nagents-circumventing resistance and breaking down biofilms: a review","volume":"53","author":"Wainwright","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6918","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.71.11.6918-6925.2005","article-title":"Photodynamic Inactivation of Bacillus\nSpores, Mediated by Phenothiazinium Dyes","volume":"71","author":"Demidova","year":"2005","journal-title":"Appl.\nEnviron. Microbiol."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotobiol.2004.11.023","article-title":"Photodynamic Therapy\nfor Periodontal Diseases: State of the Art","volume":"79","author":"Meisel","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. B-Biol."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/0195-6701(95)90070-5","article-title":"Efficacy of gentian\nviolet in the eradication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus\naureus from skin lesions","volume":"31","author":"Saji","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Infect."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2008.09.020","article-title":"The Antimicrobial Properties of Light-Activated\nPolymers Containing Methylene Blue and Gold Nanoparticles","volume":"30","author":"Perni","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2715","DOI":"10.1039\/b820561b","article-title":"Toluidine\nBlue-Containing Polymers Exhibit Potent Bactericidal Activity when\nIrradiated with Red Laser Light","volume":"19","author":"Perni","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15388","DOI":"10.1039\/c2jm31987j","article-title":"Incorporation of\nMethylene Blue and Nanogold into Polyvinyl Chloride Catheters; A New\nApproach for Light-Activated Disinfection of Surfaces","volume":"22","author":"Noimark","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18383","DOI":"10.1039\/c3ra42629g","article-title":"Photobactericidal\nPolymers; The Incorporation of Crystal Violet and Nanogold into Medical\nGrade Silicone","volume":"3","author":"Noimark","year":"2013","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc1071","article-title":"Photodynamic Therapy for Cancer","volume":"3","author":"Dolmans","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. 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Phys. Chem. 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D. S.; Mushtaq, I.\n          Preparation\nof Nanoparticle Materials. U.S. Patent 7,588,828 B2, Sep 15, 2009."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6490","DOI":"10.1039\/c5tb00971e","article-title":"Lethal Photosensitisation\nof Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli Using Crystal Violet\nand Zinc Oxide-Encapsulated Polyurethane","volume":"3","author":"Sehmi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J.\nMater. Chem. B"},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1111\/exd.12257","article-title":"Gentian Violet:\nA 19th Century Drug Re-Emerges in the 21st Century","volume":"22","author":"Maley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2009.03.029","article-title":"Gentian Violet is Safe","volume":"61","author":"Arbiser","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.det.2010.08.009","article-title":"Effectiveness of\nGentian Violet and Similar Products Commonly Used to Treat Pyodermas","volume":"29","author":"Berrios","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dermatol. Clin."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/s0896-8446(02)00026-8","article-title":"Visible Absorption Spectra of Crystal Violet in Supercritical\nEthane-Methanol Solution","volume":"24","author":"Dimitrijevic","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluid"},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2971","DOI":"10.1016\/s1386-1425(02)00044-6","article-title":"Solvent and Concentration Effects on the Visible Spectra\nof Tri-Para-Dialkylamino-Substituted Triarylmethane Dyes in Liquid\nSolutions","volume":"58","author":"Oliveira","year":"2002","journal-title":"Spectroc. Acta Pt. A-Molec. Biomolec.\nSpectr."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2648","DOI":"10.1063\/1.435177","article-title":"High pressure\nstudies of the effect of viscosity on fluorescence efficiency in crystal\nviolet and auramine O","volume":"67","author":"Brey","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/0009-2614(80)85283-3","article-title":"A study of the viscosity-dependent electronic relaxation\nof some triphenylmethane dyes using picosecond flash photolysis","volume":"71","author":"Cremers","year":"1980","journal-title":"Chem. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4678","DOI":"10.1021\/jp981185n","article-title":"Effect of BSA Binding\non Photophysical and Photochemical Properties of Triarylmethane Dyes","volume":"102","author":"Baptista","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit47","unstructured":"Global Priority List of\nAntibiotic-Resistant Bacteria to Guide Research, Discovery and Development\nof New Antibiotics; World Health Organization\n(WHO), 2017."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"a000414","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a000414","article-title":"The Bacterial Cell Envelope","volume":"2","author":"Silhavy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53789","DOI":"10.1039\/c5ra08788k","article-title":"Advanced Analysis of Nanoparticle\nComposites - A Means toward Increasing the Efficiency of Functional\nMaterials","volume":"5","author":"Crick","year":"2015","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3879","DOI":"10.1039\/c7sc00592j","article-title":"Electrostatically\ndriven resonance energy transfer in \u201ccationic\u201d biocompatible\nindium phosphide quantum dots","volume":"8","author":"Devatha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Sci."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11280","DOI":"10.1021\/ja8043085","article-title":"Intermittent Electron Transfer Activity from Single\nCdSe\/ZnS Quantum Dots","volume":"130","author":"Issac","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. 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Photobiol."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3891","DOI":"10.1021\/jp911801m","article-title":"Size Dependent\nResonance Energy Transfer between Semiconductor Quantum Dots and Dye\nusing FRET and Kinetic Model","volume":"114","author":"Sadhu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem.\nC"},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28101","DOI":"10.1039\/c6cp02529c","article-title":"Comparative Study of Singlet Oxygen\nProduction by Photosensitiser Dyes Encapsulated in Silicone: Towards\nRational Design of Anti-Microbial Surfaces","volume":"18","author":"Noimark","year":"2016","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.201301459","article-title":"Fluorescence\nLifetime Imaging and FRET-Induced Intracellular Redistribution of\nTat-Conjugated Quantum Dot Nanoparticles through Interaction with\na Phthalocyanine Photosensitiser","volume":"10","author":"Yaghini","year":"2013","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"54830","DOI":"10.1039\/c5ra09045h","article-title":"Photosensitisation\nStudies of Silicone Polymer Doped with Methylene Blue and Nanogold\nfor Antimicrobial Applications","volume":"5","author":"Bovis","year":"2015","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1515\/pac-2014-0502","article-title":"Standard Electrode Potentials Involving Radicals in\nAqueous Solution: Inorganic Radicals (IUPAC Technical Report)","volume":"87","author":"Armstrong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Chem."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2753","DOI":"10.1021\/j100641a008","article-title":"Reduction\nof dyes by free radicals in solution. Correlation between reaction\nrate constants and redox potentials","volume":"77","author":"Rao","year":"1973","journal-title":"J. Phys.\nChem."},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2625","DOI":"10.1021\/jp046781y","article-title":"Electron\nand Hole Transfer from Indium Phosphide Quantum Dots","volume":"109","author":"Blackburn","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"2026090212114363000_cit65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/s0009-2797(86)80095-3","article-title":"Photosensitization\nby the trypanocidal agent crystal violet. Type i versus type II reactions","volume":"58","author":"Reszka","year":"1986","journal-title":"Chem.-Biol. 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