{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T16:56:11Z","timestamp":1791564971601,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":220,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790553600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100014440","name":"Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci?n y Universidades","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CNS2024-154833"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CNS2024-154833"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100014440","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100014440","name":"Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci?n y Universidades","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RYC2022-036380-I"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RYC2022-036380-I"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100014440","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003086","name":"Eusko Jaurlaritza","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["008-B2\/2024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["008-B2\/2024"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003086","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"European Social Fund","award":["RYC2022-036380-I"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RYC2022-036380-I"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/048snh465","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>In recent years, flexible, wearable, and implantable chemical sensors and biosensors have become crucial in biomedical engineering. These flexible devices enable the noninvasive, real-time monitoring of biochemical markers in biofluids, from blood to the most accessible ones that enable noninvasive monitoring (sweat, tears, saliva, and interstitial fluid) as indicators of the health status. In their development, polymer-based hydrogels have emerged as the material of choice and have recently started to attract increasing attention due to advantages in terms of biocompatibility, surface area, and chemical tunability. Here, we provide an overview of the structural polymers according to their nature (natural vs synthetic), giving a special focus on the use of conductive polymers. Then, we discuss the strategies to integrate the bioreceptor to provide the hydrogels with the necessary selectivity toward biomarker detection. Finally, we go through emerging trends where hydrogels are employed in smart formats beyond the simple performance of the detection. As an overall, the integration of polymer-based hydrogels with advanced bioreceptor strategies and smart functionalities is driving the development of next-generation wearable and implantable biosensors, paving the way for noninvasive, continuous, and personalized diagnostics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acsapm.6c02489","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T04:02:30Z","timestamp":1790654550000},"page":"16867-16890","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Polymer-Based Hydrogels\nfor Chemical Biosensing: From\nBioreceptor Integration to Smart Applications"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Leyre","family":"De-La-Fuente","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"TECNALIA, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA) , Mikeletegi Pasealekua 2 , ,","place":["Donostia-San Sebastia\u0301n, Spain, 20009"]},{"name":"University of the Basque Country (EHU) , , ,","place":["Donostia-San Sebastia\u0301n, Spain, 20018"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5502-892X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Miryam","family":"Criado-Gonzalez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CSIC , , Juan de la Cierva 3 , ,","place":["Madrid, Spain, 28006"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9899-1409","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Bergoi","family":"Ibarlucea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TECNALIA, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA) , Mikeletegi Pasealekua 2 , ,","place":["Donostia-San Sebastia\u0301n, Spain, 20009"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]]},"reference":[{"issue":"21","key":"2026100910092105400_cit1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8813","DOI":"10.3390\/s23218813","article-title":"Application\nof Biosensors in Detecting Breast Cancer Metastasis","volume":"23","author":"Deng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026100910092105400_cit2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-022-04320-z","article-title":"Point-of-Care\nElectrochemical Testing of Biomarkers Involved in Inflammatory and\nInflammatory-Associated Medical Conditions","volume":"415","author":"Macovei","year":"2023","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"issue":"16","key":"2026100910092105400_cit3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5143","DOI":"10.3390\/s24165143","article-title":"Innovations\nin Biosensor Technologies for Healthcare Diagnostics and Therapeutic\nDrug Monitoring: Applications, Recent Progress, and Future Research\nChallenges","volume":"24","author":"Hemdan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026100910092105400_cit4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.17691\/STM2020.12.6.09","article-title":"Biosensor Technologies\nin Medicine: From Detection of Biochemical Markers to Research into\nMolecular Targets","volume":"12","author":"Andriukov","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mod. Technol. Med."},{"key":"2026100910092105400_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2024.127404","article-title":"An Integrated\nWearable Microfluidic Biosensor for Simultaneous Detection of Multiple\nBiomarkers in Sweat","volume":"285","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"issue":"27","key":"2026100910092105400_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7775","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-016-9879-z","article-title":"An Integrated\nLab-on-a-Chip-Based Electrochemical Biosensor for Rapid and Sensitive\nDetection of Cancer Biomarkers","volume":"408","author":"Uludag","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal.\nChem."},{"key":"2026100910092105400_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2024.117071","article-title":"A Bimodal Closed-Loop Neuromodulation\nImplant Integrated with Ultraflexible Probes to Treat Epilepsy","volume":"271","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026100910092105400_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-019-0045-y","article-title":"Wearable Biosensors\nfor Healthcare Monitoring","volume":"37","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol.\n2019 374"},{"issue":"51","key":"2026100910092105400_cit9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202501985","article-title":"Automated\nLabel-Free Assay for Viral\nDetection and Inhibitor Screening via Biomembrane-Functionalized Microelectrode\nArrays","volume":"37","author":"Lu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"issue":"6","key":"2026100910092105400_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1642","DOI":"10.1039\/C8CS00595H","article-title":"Hydrogel Bioelectronics","volume":"48","author":"Yuk","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem.\nSoc. 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Sci."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026100910092105400_cit13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.3390\/s22020638","article-title":"Comprehensive\nReview on Wearable Sweat-Glucose Sensors for Continuous Glucose Monitoring","volume":"22","author":"Zafar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026100910092105400_cit14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-025-01570-0","article-title":"Polymer-Based\nElectrochemical Sensors for the Diagnosis of Neurodegenerative Diseases","volume":"45","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"2026100910092105400_cit15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2021.113855","article-title":"An Integrated and Conductive Hydrogel-Paper Patch for\nSimultaneous Sensing of Chemical\u2013Electrophysiological Signals","volume":"198","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biosens. 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The Design and Fabrication of\nPermselective Hydrogels for Electrochemical Devices","volume":"13","author":"Murphy","year":"1992","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026100910092105400_cit25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1177\/088532829200700103","article-title":"Polymeric\nMembranes for Silicon Based (Bio)Sensors","volume":"7","author":"Arquint","year":"1992","journal-title":"J.\nBiomater. Appl."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026100910092105400_cit26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/0956-5663(94)80107-X","article-title":"Amperometric\nBiosensor for in Vivo Glucose Sensing Based on Glucose Oxidase Immobilized\nin a Redox Hydrogel","volume":"9","author":"Linke","year":"1994","journal-title":"Biosens. 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Bioelectron."},{"issue":"9","key":"2026100910092105400_cit34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8816","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.4c10652","article-title":"Recent Progress\nof Polymer-Based\nBiosensors for Cancer Diagnostic Applications: Natural versus Synthetic\nPolymers","volume":"10","author":"Kamoun","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"2026100910092105400_cit35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-chembioeng-101420-024336","article-title":"Wearable\nand Implantable Soft Bioelectronics: Device Designs and Material Strategies","volume":"12","author":"Sunwoo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Chem. Biomol. 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Polym."},{"issue":"36","key":"2026100910092105400_cit39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46988","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.4c02317","article-title":"Recent Advances in\nHydrogel-Based Biosensors for Cancer Detection","volume":"16","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"2026100910092105400_cit40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2019.06.014","article-title":"Polymer Hydrogel\nInterfaces in Electrochemical Sensing Strategies: A Review","volume":"118","author":"Dhanjai","year":"2019","journal-title":"TrAC, Trends Anal. Chem."},{"issue":"10","key":"2026100910092105400_cit41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2036","DOI":"10.1039\/D2TB02019J","article-title":"Hydrogels with Electrically Conductive Nanomaterials\nfor Biomedical Applications","volume":"11","author":"Kougkolos","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mater. 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