{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T16:56:42Z","timestamp":1791565002847,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790294400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007493","name":"University of Colorado Boulder","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007493","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000181","name":"Air Force Office of Scientific Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FA9550-25-1-0108"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FA9550-25-1-0108"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000181","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01HL160616"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01HL160616"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The design of engineered living materials (ELMs) that integrate active cells offers opportunities to create dynamic, adaptive systems. However, current methods often use bulk hydrogels that can immobilize cells and limit their growth and migration, which affects their overall functionality for use as an ELM. Here, we developed a granular hydrogel composite composed of hydrogel particles (i.e., microgels), Escherichia coli (E. coli), and a cross-linkable polymer that can be crosslinked with light exposure when desired. We investigated the influence of matrix composition and incubation conditions on microcolony morphology and mechanical properties and observed that the addition of microgels to the composite results in larger bacterial colonies with roughened morphologies and that the granular hydrogel composite compressive modulus is dependent on the matrix composition and incubation conditions. To further demonstrate the potential of this system, we also showed that the granular hydrogel composites can be 3D printed into specified geometries, that the composites can be used for sustained release of bacteria, and that the un-crosslinked matrix supports chemotactic migration, producing cell density gradients that can be fixed in place with crosslinking. Overall, the granular hydrogel composites provide an approach for the fabrication of ELMs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acsapm.6c03807","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T17:03:44Z","timestamp":1790355824000},"page":"18000-18009","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Granular Hydrogel\nComposites as Matrices for Engineered\nLiving Materials"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5647-3788","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Samson Oluwagbenga","family":"Adelani","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Colorado , , , ,","place":["Boulder, Colorado, United States, 80303"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Morgan B.","family":"Riffe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Colorado , , , ,","place":["Boulder, Colorado, United States, 80303"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2006-332X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jason A.","family":"Burdick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Colorado , , , ,","place":["Boulder, Colorado, United States, 80303"]},{"name":"University of Colorado , , , ,","place":["Boulder, Colorado, United States, 80303"]},{"name":"University of Colorado , , , ,","place":["Boulder, Colorado, United States, 80303"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3980-8491","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"R. Konane","family":"Bay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Colorado , , , ,","place":["Boulder, Colorado, United States, 80303"]},{"name":"University of Colorado , , , ,","place":["Boulder, Colorado, United States, 80303"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"reference":[{"issue":"18","key":"2026100910071369800_cit1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2424405122","article-title":"A Responsive Living Material Prepared\nby Diffusion Reveals Extracellular Enzyme Activity of Cyanobacteria","volume":"122","author":"Tang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"issue":"7","key":"2026100910071369800_cit2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1021\/accountsmr.3c00271","article-title":"Programmable\nBacterial Biofilms as Engineered Living Materials","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acc. Mater. Res."},{"issue":"19","key":"2026100910071369800_cit3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201704847","article-title":"Engineered Living\nMaterials: Prospects and Challenges\nfor Using Biological Systems to Direct the Assembly of Smart Materials","volume":"30","author":"Nguyen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026100910071369800_cit4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1038\/s41563-021-01123-y","article-title":"Engineering Living and Regenerative\nFungal\u2013Bacterial\nBiocomposite Structures","volume":"21","author":"McBee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"2026100910071369800_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.02.390","article-title":"Mitigation of\nEnvironmental Pollution by Genetically Engineered Bacteria\u2500Current\nChallenges and Future Perspectives","volume":"667","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total\nEnviron."},{"key":"2026100910071369800_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2023.122248","article-title":"Organic Functional Substance Engineered\nLiving Materials for Biomedical Applications","volume":"301","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"issue":"8","key":"2026100910071369800_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2295","DOI":"10.1021\/acssynbio.4c00259","article-title":"Toward Practical\nApplications of\nEngineered Living Materials with Advanced Fabrication Techniques","volume":"13","author":"Lu","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Synth. Biol."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026100910071369800_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202306564","article-title":"Engineered\nLiving Material Bioreactors with Tunable Mechanical Properties Using\nVat Photopolymerization","volume":"20","author":"Altin-Yavuzarslan","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"2026100910071369800_cit9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpa.2022.102188","article-title":"Engineered\nLiving Materials (ELMs) Design: From Function Allocation to Dynamic\nBehavior Modulation","volume":"70","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026100910071369800_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1021\/acssynbio.8b00423","article-title":"Biological Engineered\nLiving Materials: Growing Functional Materials\nwith Genetically Programmable Properties","volume":"8","author":"Gilbert","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS\nSynth. Biol."},{"key":"2026100910071369800_cit11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fsens.2020.586300","article-title":"Engineered Living Materials-Based Sensing and Actuation","volume":"1","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Sens."},{"issue":"7","key":"2026100910071369800_cit12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1039\/c3bm00012e","article-title":"Bio-Ink\nProperties and Printability\nfor Extrusion Printing Living Cells","volume":"1","author":"Chung","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomater.\nSci."},{"key":"2026100910071369800_cit13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3791\/59477","article-title":"Three-Dimensional Patterning of Engineered Biofilms\nwith a Do-It-Yourself Bioprinter","author":"Spiesz","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Visualized\nExp."},{"issue":"11","key":"2026100910071369800_cit14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matt.2023.07.023","article-title":"Make Engineered Living Materials Carry Their Weight","volume":"6","author":"Heveran","year":"2023","journal-title":"Matter"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026100910071369800_cit15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2013.07.006","article-title":"Hydrogel:\nPreparation, Characterization, and Applications: A Review","volume":"6","author":"Ahmed","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"issue":"11","key":"2026100910071369800_cit16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2997","DOI":"10.1021\/acssynbio.1c00290","article-title":"Emergent Biological\nEndurance Depends on Extracellular Matrix Composition of Three-Dimensionally\nPrinted Escherichia Coli Biofilms","volume":"10","author":"Balasubramanian","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Synth. 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Mater."},{"issue":"6","key":"2026100910071369800_cit20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1038\/s41578-023-00554-0","article-title":"Engineered\nLiving Materials for Sustainable and Resilient Architecture","volume":"8","author":"Sandak","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"issue":"8","key":"2026100910071369800_cit21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1707","DOI":"10.1002\/jctb.7638","article-title":"Immobilization:\nThe Promising Technique to Protect and Increase the Efficiency of\nMicroorganisms to Remove Contaminants","volume":"99","author":"Najim","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Chem.\nTechnol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"2026100910071369800_cit22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogsc.2021.100565","article-title":"Cell Immobilization\nStrategies for Biotransformations","volume":"33","author":"Lapponi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. 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Bio Mater."},{"issue":"10","key":"2026100910071369800_cit30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202206117","article-title":"Influence\nof Microgel and Interstitial Matrix Compositions\non Granular Hydrogel Composite Properties","volume":"10","author":"Muir","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv.\nSci."},{"key":"2026100910071369800_cit31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioadv.2022.213095","article-title":"Living Materials Made by 3D Printing Cellulose-Producing\nBacteria in Granular Gels","volume":"141","author":"Binelli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomater. Adv."},{"issue":"34","key":"2026100910071369800_cit32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202309026","article-title":"Multi-Material Volumetric\nAdditive Manufacturing of Hydrogels Using Gelatin as a Sacrificial\nNetwork and 3D Suspension Bath","volume":"36","author":"Riffe","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"2026100910071369800_cit33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3791\/66166","article-title":"3D Printing\nBacteria to Study Motility and Growth in Complex 3D Porous Media","author":"Bay","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Visualized Exp."},{"issue":"16","key":"2026100910071369800_cit34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpj.2021.05.012","article-title":"Chemotactic\nMigration of Bacteria in Porous Media","volume":"120","author":"Bhattacharjee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biophys.\nJ."},{"key":"2026100910071369800_cit35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ohx.2020.e00170","article-title":"A High Performance\nOpen-Source Syringe\nExtruder Optimized for Extrusion and Retraction during FRESH 3D Bioprinting","volume":"9","author":"Tashman","year":"2021","journal-title":"HardwareX"},{"key":"2026100910071369800_cit36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-816805-9.00014-4","article-title":"Hydrogels and Hydrogel Composites\nfor 3D and 4D Printing Applications","volume-title":"3D\nand 4D Printing of Polymer Nanocomposite Materials","author":"Liu","year":"2020"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026100910071369800_cit37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.2144\/btn-2018-0083","article-title":"Recent\nAdvances\nin Photo-Crosslinkable Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications","volume":"66","author":"Choi","year":"2019","journal-title":"BioTechniques"},{"key":"2026100910071369800_cit38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smaim.2022.07.003","article-title":"Recent Advances\nin Hyaluronic Acid-Based Hydrogels\nfor 3D Bioprinting in Tissue Engineering Applications","volume":"4","author":"Ding","year":"2023","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Med."},{"issue":"12","key":"2026100910071369800_cit39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aao6804","article-title":"3D Printing\nof Bacteria into Functional Complex Materials","volume":"3","author":"Schaffner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"issue":"25","key":"2026100910071369800_cit40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202301388","article-title":"Granular\nHydrogels in Biofabrication: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives","volume":"13","author":"Daly","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Healthcare Mater."},{"key":"2026100910071369800_cit41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.132878","article-title":"Granular Hydrogels with Tunable Properties\nPrepared from Gum Arabic\nand Protein Microgels","volume":"273","author":"Kan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026100910071369800_cit42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12934-022-01995-y","article-title":"Green Immobilization\nand Efficient Proliferation of Escherichia Coli Cells in Polyvinyl Alcohol Hydrogel\nMembranes by Unidirectional Nanopore Dehydration","volume":"21","author":"Zhong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microb. Cell Fact."},{"issue":"17","key":"2026100910071369800_cit43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.128.178102","article-title":"Biofilm\nGrowth under Elastic Confinement","volume":"128","author":"Fortune","year":"2022","journal-title":"Phys. Rev.\nLett."},{"issue":"14","key":"2026100910071369800_cit44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15871","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.1c20836","article-title":"Bacterial Growth, Communication,\nand Guided Chemotaxis\nin 3D-Bioprinted Hydrogel Environments","volume":"14","author":"Mu\u0308ller","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS\nAppl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"issue":"31","key":"2026100910071369800_cit45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2107107118","article-title":"Morphogenesis\nand Cell Ordering in\nConfined Bacterial Biofilms","volume":"118","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad.\nSci. U.S.A."},{"issue":"36","key":"2026100910071369800_cit46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E5337","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1611494113","article-title":"Vibrio\nCholerae Biofilm Growth Program and Architecture Revealed by Single-Cell\nLive Imaging","volume":"113","author":"Yan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"2026100910071369800_cit47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-60004-z","article-title":"Spatiotemporal\nDevelopment of Expanding Bacterial Colonies Driven by Emergent Mechanical\nConstraints and Nutrient Gradients","volume":"16","author":"Kannan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"issue":"43","key":"2026100910071369800_cit48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2208019119","article-title":"Morphological Instability and Roughening\nof Growing 3D Bacterial Colonies","volume":"119","author":"Marti\u0301nez-Calvo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Natl.\nAcad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"issue":"11","key":"2026100910071369800_cit49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3082","DOI":"10.1039\/D1SC06231J","article-title":"Mechanical\nReinforcement of Granular\nHydrogels","volume":"13","author":"Charlet","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Sci."},{"issue":"34","key":"2026100910071369800_cit50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202309818","article-title":"Reconfigurable Growth of Engineered\nLiving Materials","volume":"36","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026100910071369800_cit51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2008.09.034","article-title":"Compressive Properties\nof Yeast Cell-Loaded Ca-Alginate Hydrogel\nLayers: Comparison with Alginate\u2013CaCO3Microparticle Composite\nGel Structures","volume":"145","author":"Junter","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"issue":"8","key":"2026100910071369800_cit52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jksues.2020.07.007","article-title":"A Fundamental\nReview on Composite Materials and Some of Their Applications in Biomedical\nEngineering","volume":"33","author":"Egbo","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. King Saud Univ., Eng. Sci."},{"issue":"5","key":"2026100910071369800_cit53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2956","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.4c00105","article-title":"Determining\nthe Young\u2019s Modulus of the Bacterial Cell Envelope","volume":"10","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Biomater Sci. Eng."},{"issue":"5","key":"2026100910071369800_cit54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1007\/s00397-011-0614-6","article-title":"Scaling and Mesostructure of Carbopol\nDispersions","volume":"51","author":"Gutowski","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rheol. Acta"},{"key":"2026100910071369800_cit55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2012.09.026","article-title":"Particle\nSize \u2013 Dependent\non the Static and Dynamic Compression Properties of Polypropylene\/Silica\nComposites","volume":"45","author":"Omar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"issue":"13","key":"2026100910071369800_cit56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1941","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2005.12.028","article-title":"Effect\nof Inclusion Size on Mechanical\nProperties of Polymeric Composites with Micro and Nano Particles","volume":"66","author":"Cho","year":"2006","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"16","key":"2026100910071369800_cit57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6250","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.macromol.9b01197","article-title":"Effect of Nanoparticle\nOrganization on Molecular Mobility and Mechanical Properties of Polymer\nNanocomposites","volume":"52","author":"Ondreas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"2026100910071369800_cit58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymertesting.2020.106640","article-title":"Mechanical\nProperties of Glassy Polymers with Controlled NP Spatial Organization","volume":"90","author":"Jancar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Polym. Test."}],"container-title":["ACS Applied Polymer Materials"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1021\/acsapm.6c03807","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"unspecified"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/aapmcd\/article-pdf\/8\/19\/18000\/68661684\/acsapm.6c03807.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/aapmcd\/article-pdf\/8\/19\/18000\/68661684\/acsapm.6c03807.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T16:26:05Z","timestamp":1791563165000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/aapmcd\/article\/8\/19\/18000\/5439044\/Granular-Hydrogel-Composites-as-Matrices-for"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsapm.6c03807","relation":{},"ISSN":["2637-6105"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2637-6105","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]]}}}