{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,9]],"date-time":"2026-10-09T16:05:48Z","timestamp":1791561948447,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"31","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,25]],"date-time":"2026-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784937600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002920","name":"Research Grants Council, University Grants Committee","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["11207222"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11207222"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002920","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002920","name":"Research Grants Council, University Grants Committee","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["11216120"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11216120"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002920","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002920","name":"Research Grants Council, University Grants Committee","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CRS_CityU103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CRS_CityU103"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002920","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002920","name":"Research Grants Council, University Grants Committee","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["T42-717\/20-R"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T42-717\/20-R"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002920","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"InnoHK Project","award":["Hong Kong Centre for Cerebro-Cardiovascular Health"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Hong Kong Centre for Cerebro-Cardiovascular Health"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Soft dual-modal tactile sensors capable of simultaneously sensing force and temperature are essential for enhancing human-like perception and interaction in robots, particularly in the functional sense of concurrent mechanical and thermal perception. However, achieving self-decoupled and high-fidelity dual-modal sensing remains a significant challenge due to intrinsic signal crosstalk, structural complexity, and limited flexibility in existing designs. Here, we present a soft robotic tactile (RoboTac) skin that intrinsically decouples force and temperature using an ionic conductive film within a minimalist architecture, featuring an ultralight weight and an ultralow cost. Ionic conductivity enables independent readouts without algorithmic compensation by allowing thickness compression to modulate capacitance (force) and lateral ionic transport under thermal stimuli to modulate resistance (temperature). Moreover, the RoboTac skin demonstrates its practical utility for robots in object perception, specialized tasks, and human\u2013robot interaction. This work establishes a general principle for intrinsically self-decoupling modalities in tactile sensors, advancing multimodal sensing, intelligent perception, and embodied robotics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.6c09063","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]],"date-time":"2026-07-27T05:13:19Z","timestamp":1785129199000},"page":"22195-22214","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Intrinsic Force\u2013Temperature\nSelf-Decoupling\nEnables Human-like Tactile Sensing in a Soft Ionic Skin"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2211-2161","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Yu","family":"Feng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]},{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiankun","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]},{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cong","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]},{"name":"China University of Geosciences (Beijing) , , ,","place":["Beijing, China, 100083"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Senlin","family":"Hou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yehui","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6434-6172","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Hui","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]},{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meng","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]},{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ziyi","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhi","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shenzhen University , , ,","place":["Shenzhen, China, 518000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guanglie","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]},{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steven","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1432-9950","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Vellaisamy A. L.","family":"Roy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hong Kong Metropolitan University , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0522-1171","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Xinge","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9616-6213","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Wen Jung","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]},{"name":"City University of Hong Kong , , , ,","place":["Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China, 999077"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,25]]},"reference":[{"issue":"9","key":"2026081111151154500_cit1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1038\/s42254-022-00481-z","article-title":"A Concise Guide to Modelling the Physics of Embodied\nIntelligence in Soft Robotics","volume":"4","author":"Mengaldo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. 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Intell."},{"key":"2026081111151154500_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1609","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-16-5540-1_117","article-title":"Neuromorphic Tactile\nSensing and Encoding","volume-title":"Handbook of Neuroengineering","author":"Kumar","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026081111151154500_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"862344","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.862344","article-title":"Skin and\nMechanoreceptor Contribution\nto Tactile Input for Perception: A Review of Simulation Models","volume":"16","author":"Deflorio","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026081111151154500_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2100074","DOI":"10.1002\/aisy.202100074","article-title":"Tactile and Vision Perception for Intelligent Humanoids","volume":"4","author":"Gao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Intell. 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Rep."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026081111151154500_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1002\/wcs.1238","article-title":"Haptic\nPerception","volume":"4","author":"Kappers","year":"2013","journal-title":"WIREs Cognit.\nSci."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081111151154500_cit11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1002\/rcs.3","article-title":"Human Tactile Perception as a Standard for Artificial\nTactile Sensing\u2500a Review","volume":"1","author":"Dargahi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Med.\nRobot. Comput. Assist. Surg."},{"issue":"15","key":"2026081111151154500_cit12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2984","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14152984","article-title":"Conducting\nPolymers for the Design of Tactile Sensors","volume":"14","author":"Bubniene","year":"2022","journal-title":"Polymers"},{"issue":"11","key":"2026081111151154500_cit13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1007\/s13233-021-9092-6","article-title":"Conductive\nPolymer Composites for Soft Tactile Sensors","volume":"29","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Macromol. Res."},{"issue":"5","key":"2026081111151154500_cit14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1007\/s00542-009-0958-3","article-title":"Tactile Sensors\nBased on Conductive\nPolymers","volume":"16","author":"Castellanos-Ramos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Microsyst. Technol."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026081111151154500_cit15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1080\/19475411.2021.1948457","article-title":"3D Printing of Liquid Metal Based\nTactile Sensor for Simultaneously Sensing of Temperature and Forces","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Smart Nano Mater."},{"issue":"15","key":"2026081111151154500_cit16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12891","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.2c00098","article-title":"Flexible Tactile\nSensing Microfibers Based On Liquid Metals","volume":"7","author":"Liang","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"issue":"36","key":"2026081111151154500_cit17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2002611","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202002611","article-title":"Ultrasoft Liquid\nMetal Elastomer Foams with Positive and Negative Piezopermittivity\nfor Tactile Sensing","volume":"30","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026081111151154500_cit18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4899","DOI":"10.3390\/s140304899","article-title":"A Finger-Shaped\nTactile Sensor for Fabric Surfaces Evaluation by 2-Dimensional Active\nSliding Touch","volume":"14","author":"Hu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081111151154500_cit19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2021.103728","article-title":"Mechanical\nSensors Based on Two-Dimensional Materials:\nSensing Mechanisms, Structural Designs and Wearable Applications","volume":"25","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"iScience"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026081111151154500_cit20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1002\/inf2.12072","article-title":"Two-Dimensional\nMaterials:\nFrom Mechanical Properties to Flexible Mechanical Sensors","volume":"2","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"InfoMat"},{"issue":"44","key":"2026081111151154500_cit21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2405722","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202405722","article-title":"Innovations in Tactile Sensing: Microstructural\nDesigns for Superior Flexible Sensor Performance","volume":"34","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"issue":"18","key":"2026081111151154500_cit22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3625","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.201401207","article-title":"Microstructured\nGraphene Arrays for Highly Sensitive Flexible Tactile Sensors","volume":"10","author":"Zhu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Small"},{"issue":"9","key":"2026081111151154500_cit23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10291","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3061677","article-title":"Recent Applications of Different Microstructure Designs\nin High Performance Tactile Sensors: A Review","volume":"21","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"issue":"6","key":"2026081111151154500_cit24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"065005","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/aabc29","article-title":"Characterization of a Compliant Multi-Layer\nSystem for Tactile Sensing with Enhanced Sensitivity and Range","volume":"27","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"issue":"12","key":"2026081111151154500_cit25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125009","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/aaeae4","article-title":"Compliant\nMulti-Layer Tactile Sensing\nfor Enhanced Identification of Human Touch","volume":"27","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"issue":"35","key":"2026081111151154500_cit26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1902484","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201902484","article-title":"Hierarchical\nFabric-Based Tactile Sensors with High Sensitivity and Linearity in\nUltrawide Pressure Range","volume":"29","author":"Pyo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"issue":"6","key":"2026081111151154500_cit27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.3390\/s17061187","article-title":"Multimodal Bio-Inspired\nTactile Sensing Module for Surface Characterization","volume":"17","author":"de Oliveira","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"issue":"7","key":"2026081111151154500_cit28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2705","DOI":"10.3390\/s22072705","article-title":"Review of Recent Bio-Inspired\nDesign and Manufacturing of Whisker Tactile Sensors","volume":"22","author":"Sayegh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026081111151154500_cit29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5296","DOI":"10.3390\/s140305296","article-title":"Flexible Tactile Sensing\nBased on Piezoresistive Composites: A Review","volume":"14","author":"Stassi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"2026081111151154500_cit30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2013.11.018","article-title":"Piezoresistive\nFlexible Composite for Robotic Tactile Applications","volume":"208","author":"Canavese","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens Actuators, A"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026081111151154500_cit31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.3390\/s16060819","article-title":"Flexible Piezoelectric\nTactile Sensor Array for Dynamic Three-Axis Force Measurement","volume":"16","author":"Yu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"issue":"10","key":"2026081111151154500_cit32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2300119","DOI":"10.1002\/crat.202300119","article-title":"PVDF-Based Flexible\nPiezoelectric Tactile Sensors: Review","volume":"58","author":"Qi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cryst.\nRes. Technol."},{"issue":"24","key":"2026081111151154500_cit33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21775","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.9b04671","article-title":"Organic Optoelectronic Diodes as Tactile Sensors for\nSoft-Touch Applications","volume":"11","author":"Kielar","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081111151154500_cit34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-15105-2","article-title":"Tactile Sensory\nCoding and Learning with Bio-Inspired Optoelectronic Spiking Afferent\nNerves","volume":"11","author":"Tan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"2026081111151154500_cit35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.75507","article-title":"A Soft\nMechanoluminescent\nSkin for High-Resolution Optical Tactile Sensing in Human\u2013Machine\nInteraction","author":"Feng","year":"2026","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026081111151154500_cit36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.3390\/s20041123","article-title":"Design and Evaluation of Magnetic Hall Effect Tactile\nSensors for Use in Sensorized Splints","volume":"20","author":"Jones","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"issue":"11","key":"2026081111151154500_cit37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1038\/s42256-024-00904-9","article-title":"A Soft Skin with Self-Decoupled\nThree-Axis Force-Sensing Taxels","volume":"6","author":"Yan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Mach.\nIntell."},{"issue":"51","key":"2026081111151154500_cit38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abc8801","article-title":"Soft Magnetic Skin for Super-Resolution Tactile Sensing\nwith Force\nSelf-Decoupling","volume":"6","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rob."},{"issue":"42","key":"2026081111151154500_cit39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38616","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.9b11435","article-title":"Flexible, High-Power\nDensity, Wearable Thermoelectric Nanogenerator and Self-Powered Temperature\nSensor","volume":"11","author":"Feng","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081111151154500_cit40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2309553","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202309553","article-title":"Multifunctional Thermoelectric Temperature Sensor for\nNoncontact Information Transfer and Tactile Sensing in Human-Machine\nInteraction","volume":"34","author":"Gao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"2026081111151154500_cit41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eml.2018.04.002","article-title":"Advanced Approaches\nfor Quantitative Characterization of Thermal Transport Properties\nin Soft Materials Using Thin, Conformable Resistive Sensors","volume":"22","author":"Crawford","year":"2018","journal-title":"Extreme Mech. Lett."},{"key":"2026081111151154500_cit42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2025.116377","article-title":"Pressure and Temperature Bimodal Tactile Sensor Based on Electrical\nDouble-Layer Effect of Ionic Liquids","volume":"387","author":"Wu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sens Actuators,\nA"},{"key":"2026081111151154500_cit43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110984","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2025.110984","article-title":"Self-Powered Single\nMultifunctional Tactile Sensor for Simultaneous Detection of Dynamic\nand Static Pressure and Temperature Inspired by Skin Sensory Functions","volume":"139","author":"Lee","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"2026081111151154500_cit44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2017.06.008","article-title":"A Force and Thermal\nSensing Skin for Robots in Human Environments","volume":"96","author":"Wade","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rob. Auton. Syst."},{"issue":"49","key":"2026081111151154500_cit45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abc8134","article-title":"Skin-Inspired Quadruple\nTactile Sensors\nIntegrated on a Robot Hand Enable Object Recognition","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rob."},{"key":"2026081111151154500_cit46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtphys.2024.101331","article-title":"A Tri-Modal Tactile Sensor Based\non Porous Ionic Hydrogel for Decoupled Sensing of Temperature and\nPressure","volume":"41","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. Today Phys."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026081111151154500_cit47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3614","DOI":"10.1007\/s12274-021-3906-x","article-title":"Direct Stamping\nMultifunctional Tactile Sensor for Pressure and Temperature Sensing","volume":"15","author":"Liang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nano Res."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026081111151154500_cit48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.ads4516","article-title":"3D Active-Matrix Multimodal\nSensor Arrays for Independent Detection of Pressure and Temperature","volume":"11","author":"Jo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"2026081111151154500_cit49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmapro.2023.01.008","article-title":"3D-Printing\nof Conductive Inks Based Flexible Tactile Sensor for Monitoring of\nTemperature, Strain and Pressure","volume":"87","author":"Ma","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Manuf.\nProcesses"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081111151154500_cit50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-55771-0","article-title":"Triboelectric Tactile\nSensor for Pressure and Temperature Sensing\nin High-Temperature Applications","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"issue":"7","key":"2026081111151154500_cit51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2890","DOI":"10.1109\/TED.2020.2995582","article-title":"A Force and\nTemperature Sensor Array Based on 3-D Field-Coupled Thin-Film Transistors\nfor Tactile Intelligence","volume":"67","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. 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