{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T18:37:35Z","timestamp":1792003055432,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"American Chemical Society (ACS)","issue":"34","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787270400000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-029"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787270400000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-037"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787270400000},"content-version":"stm-asf","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15223\/policy-045"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003130","name":"Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1S60925N"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1S60925N"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003130","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003130","name":"Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1SA2C26N"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1SA2C26N"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003130","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004040","name":"KU Leuven","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["KAC3\/24\/071"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KAC3\/24\/071"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004040","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Reliable detection of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) in human tissues remains analytically challenging due to complex biological matrices, contamination risks, and limited sensitivity of existing spectroscopic and mass-based techniques toward submicrometer particles. Here, we present a histology-compatible analytical approach that enables in situ, volumetric detection and quantification of MNPs in biological tissues with submicrometer sensitivity. The method combines hydrogel-based tissue transformation and optical clearing with fluorescence staining and three-dimensional optical imaging, preserving the spatial architecture of the tissue while removing interfering biological components. This approach effectively minimizes external contamination and enables Nile Red-based identification of MNPs embedded within intact tissue volumes. Analytical performance was validated using spiked biological models and reference polymers, demonstrating reliable retention, detection, and classification of MNPs down to a conservatively defined limit of approximately 0.4 \u03bcm. False positives from endogenous hydrophobic structures are suppressed by enzymatic delipidation and are benchmarked using orthogonal fluorescence lifetime signatures against lipid artifacts and plastic reference materials. Applied to human placental tissue, the workflow resolves a particle population dominated by submicrometer MNPs (73% below 1 \u03bcm). This size fraction is systematically excluded by filtration-based workflows and, because its cumulative mass is negligible, falls below the detection limits of bulk pyrolysis-based methods. Consequently, the number-dominant MNP fraction in human tissue has remained largely inaccessible to existing analytical approaches. By enabling sensitive, structurally (rather than procedurally) contamination-resistant, and spatially resolved detection of MNPs directly within intact tissues, this approach bridges a critical gap between nanomaterials characterization and exposure biology. It provides a broadly applicable platform for future biomonitoring, exposure assessment, and hypothesis-driven studies on the biological fate of MNPs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.6c12376","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,23]],"date-time":"2026-08-23T15:20:18Z","timestamp":1787498418000},"page":"24123-24134","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Hydrogel Transformation\nReveals a Conventionally Inaccessible\nSub-Micrometer Microplastic Fraction in Intact Human Tissues"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Quinten","family":"Wouters","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Catalysis and Spectroscopy for Sustainable Solutions, KU Leuven , , ,","place":["Leuven, Belgium, 3000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sergey","family":"Abakumov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KU Leuven , , ,","place":["Leuven, Belgium, 3000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charlotte","family":"Van Der Stukken","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hasselt University , , ,","place":["Hasselt, Belgium, 3500"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2917-5950","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Imran","family":"Aslam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Catalysis and Spectroscopy for Sustainable Solutions, KU Leuven , , ,","place":["Leuven, Belgium, 3000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-7899-0819","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Iris","family":"Van Den Eede","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Catalysis and Spectroscopy for Sustainable Solutions, KU Leuven , , ,","place":["Leuven, Belgium, 3000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1882-2075","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Peter","family":"Dedecker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"KU Leuven , , ,","place":["Leuven, Belgium, 3000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tim S.","family":"Nawrot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hasselt University , , ,","place":["Hasselt, Belgium, 3500"]},{"name":"Health & Environment, KU Leuven , ,","place":["Leuven, Belgium, 3000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6582-6514","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Maarten B. J.","family":"Roeffaers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Catalysis and Spectroscopy for Sustainable Solutions, KU Leuven , , ,","place":["Leuven, Belgium, 3000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"reference":[{"issue":"22","key":"2026090306591902300_cit1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12166","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms252212166","article-title":"Can Mammalian Reproductive Health Withstand Massive\nExposure to Polystyrene Micro- and Nanoplastic Derivatives? A Systematic\nReview","volume":"25","author":"Camerano Spelta Rapini","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"issue":"14","key":"2026090306591902300_cit2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5779","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.99556","article-title":"Micro(Nano)Plastics: An Emerging Burden for Human Health","volume":"20","author":"Donisi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Sci."},{"issue":"21","key":"2026090306591902300_cit3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3703","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers16213703","article-title":"Microplastics in the Human Body: Exposure, Detection,\nand Risk of Carcinogenesis: A State-of-the-Art Review","volume":"16","author":"Dzierz\u0307yn\u0301ski","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancers"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026090306591902300_cit4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1984","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.4c12599","article-title":"Assessing the Efficacy\nof Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography-Mass\nSpectrometry for Nanoplastic and Microplastic Analysis in Human Blood","volume":"59","author":"Rauert","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026090306591902300_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1039\/D1VA00024A","article-title":"Methodologies to Characterize, Identify and Quantify\nNano- and Sub-Micron Sized Plastics in Relevant Media for Human Exposure:\nA Critical Review","volume":"1","author":"Roberto de Bruin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci.:Adv."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090306591902300_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/s43591-024-00090-w","article-title":"Quantitation\nof Micro and Nanoplastics in Human Blood by Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography\u2013Mass\nSpectrometry","volume":"4","author":"Brits","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microplast. Nanoplast."},{"issue":"7","key":"2026090306591902300_cit7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.7339","article-title":"Nanotoxicology: An Emerging Discipline\nEvolving from Studies of Ultrafine Particles","volume":"113","author":"Oberdo\u0308rster","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"2026090306591902300_cit8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115629","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trac.2019.115629","article-title":"FTIR and Raman Imaging\nfor Microplastics Analysis: State of the Art, Challenges and Prospects","volume":"119","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"TrAC, Trends Anal. Chem."},{"key":"2026090306591902300_cit9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2025.128417","article-title":"Implications of\nMethod- and Instrument-Based Size Detection Limits in \u039cFTIR-Based\nMicroplastic Analysis","volume":"296","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"2026090306591902300_cit10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coesh.2017.11.001","article-title":"Analytical Methodologies\nfor Monitoring\nMicro(Nano)Plastics: Which Are Fit for Purpose?","volume":"1","author":"Renner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090306591902300_cit11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.3390\/foods9010072","article-title":"Current Insights into Monitoring,\nBioaccumulation, and Potential Health Effects of Microplastics Present\nin the Food Chain","volume":"9","author":"van Raamsdonk","year":"2020","journal-title":"Foods"},{"key":"2026090306591902300_cit12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2022.09.004","article-title":"Pigment Microparticles\nand Microplastics Found in Human Thrombi Based on Raman Spectral Evidence","volume":"49","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"2026090306591902300_cit13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"159060","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.159060","article-title":"Identification\nof Microplastics in Human Placenta Using Laser Direct Infrared Spectroscopy","volume":"856","author":"Zhu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"issue":"19","key":"2026090306591902300_cit14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11886","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.1c00178","article-title":"Chemical\nAnalysis of Microplastics and Nanoplastics: Challenges, Advanced Methods,\nand Perspectives","volume":"121","author":"Ivleva","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"2026090306591902300_cit15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2024.116338","article-title":"From the Caribbean\nto the Arctic, the Most Abundant Microplastic Particles in the Ocean\nHave Escaped Detection","volume":"202","author":"Medina Faull","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"issue":"9","key":"2026090306591902300_cit16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.estlett.9b00379","article-title":"Simplifying Microplastic\nvia Continuous Probability\nDistributions for Size, Shape, and Density","volume":"6","author":"Kooi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026090306591902300_cit17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.100.3.965","article-title":"Nile Red: A Selective\nFluorescent\nStain for Intracellular Lipid Droplets","volume":"100","author":"Greenspan","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Cell\nBiol."},{"key":"2026090306591902300_cit18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.153441","article-title":"Microplastic\nDetection and Identification by Nile Red Staining: Towards a Semi-Automated,\nCost- and Time-Effective Technique","volume":"823","author":"Meyers","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total\nEnviron."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090306591902300_cit19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2016.10.049","article-title":"Identification and\nQuantification of Microplastics Using Nile Red Staining","volume":"113","author":"Shim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"issue":"6221","key":"2026090306591902300_cit20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1260088","article-title":"Expansion\nMicroscopy","volume":"347","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"9","key":"2026090306591902300_cit21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.3625","article-title":"Protein-Retention\nExpansion Microscopy of Cells and Tissues Labeled Using Standard Fluorescent\nProteins and Antibodies","volume":"34","author":"Tillberg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090306591902300_cit22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1038\/s41592-018-0219-4","article-title":"Expansion\nMicroscopy: Principles\nand Uses in Biological Research","volume":"16","author":"Wassie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090306591902300_cit23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1177\/1559827619879694","article-title":"The Developmental\nOrigins of Health and Disease (DOHaD)","volume":"14","author":"Lacagnina","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J.\nLifestyle Med."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090306591902300_cit24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3866","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-11654-3","article-title":"Ambient Black Carbon Particles Reach\nthe Fetal Side of Human Placenta","volume":"10","author":"Bove\u0301","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026090306591902300_cit25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1093\/TOXSCI\/KFAE021","article-title":"Quantitation and\nIdentification of Microplastics Accumulation in Human Placental Specimens\nUsing Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry","volume":"199","author":"Garcia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"2026090306591902300_cit26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2025.137105","article-title":"Numeric Uptake Drives Nanoplastic Toxicity: Size-Effects\nUncovered by Toxicokinetic-Toxicodynamic (TKTD) Modeling","volume":"486","author":"Qian","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"issue":"5","key":"2026090306591902300_cit27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1386","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyw269","article-title":"Cohort\nProfile: The ENVIRonmental\nInfluence on Early AGEing (ENVIRONAGE): A Birth Cohort Study","volume":"46","author":"Janssen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"issue":"7","key":"2026090306591902300_cit28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.2019","article-title":"Fiji: An Open-Source\nPlatform for Biological-Image Analysis","volume":"9","author":"Schindelin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat.\nMethods"},{"issue":"11","key":"2026090306591902300_cit29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2266","DOI":"10.1039\/D0EM00348D","article-title":"Nile Red Lifetime\nReveals Microplastic\nIdentity","volume":"22","author":"Sancataldo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Process. Impacts"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026090306591902300_cit30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics10030118","article-title":"A Rapid Method for\nDetecting Microplastics Based on Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Technology\n(FLIM)","volume":"10","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Toxics"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026090306591902300_cit31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"L14","DOI":"10.1529\/biophysj.107.120154","article-title":"The Phasor Approach\nto Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Analysis","volume":"94","author":"Digman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biophys.\nJ."}],"container-title":["ACS Nano"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1021\/acsnano.6c12376","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"unspecified"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/ancac3\/article-pdf\/20\/34\/24123\/67042028\/acsnano.6c12376.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/ancac3\/article-pdf\/20\/34\/24123\/67042028\/acsnano.6c12376.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T10:59:25Z","timestamp":1788433165000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/ancac3\/article\/20\/34\/24123\/5291369\/Hydrogel-Transformation-Reveals-a-Conventionally"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"34","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021\/acsnano.6c12376","relation":{},"ISSN":["1936-0851","1936-086X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1936-0851","type":"print"},{"value":"1936-086X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]}}}