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Here, we evaluated NB alone and combined with PBM using 198AuNPs and red laser irradiation in a murine triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) model. Female mice were inoculated with 4T1 cells in the lower left mammary fat pad and, once tumors reached \u223c0.1 cm3, were assigned to three groups: NB (intratumoral injection of \u223c200 \u03bcCi 198AuNPs), PBM+NB (single red laser session before NB), and Control (PBS). Tumor progression, clinical signs, spleen mass, and lung metastases were evaluated over 23 days. Galectin-3 (Gal-3) expression was quantified by RT-qPCR, and biodistribution and dose delivery of 198AuNPs were assessed by gamma counting and Monte Carlo simulations. NB significantly reduced tumor growth, lung metastases, and splenomegaly and improved clinical status compared with controls, accompanied by decreased Gal-3 expression. Similar outcomes were observed with PBM+NB, with no additional therapeutic benefit compared with NB alone. Biodistribution confirmed preferential tumor retention of 198AuNPs, which declined over time. The estimated tumor dose rate was \u223c9.34 mGy\/s, decreasing to \u223c4.14 mGy\/s after 20 min, consistent with NP diffusion. Environmental dose estimates in the isolator remained below 34% of the tumor dose, supporting procedural safety with appropriate radiological protection. These findings demonstrate that 198Au-based NB effectively reduces tumor progression and metastatic burden in TNBC. Under the conditions tested, PBM did not modify therapeutic outcomes. The results support further investigation of localized radionuclide delivery using metallic NPs as an intratumoral radiation strategy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.6c02355","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T14:02:10Z","timestamp":1785852130000},"page":"46077-46087","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Intratumoral 198Au Nanobrachytherapy Reduces\nTumor Growth and Metastasis in a Murine Model of Triple-Negative Breast\nCancer"],"prefix":"10.1021","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Mayara Santana","family":"Pinto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuclear and Energy Research Institute (IPEN-CNEN) , , , ,","place":["Sa\u0303o Paulo, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 05508-000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Camila","family":"de Almeida Salvego","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuclear and Energy Research Institute (IPEN-CNEN) , , , ,","place":["Sa\u0303o Paulo, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 05508-000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-4828-4199","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Wilmmer Alexander A.","family":"Rosero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuclear and Energy Research Institute (IPEN-CNEN) , , , ,","place":["Sa\u0303o Paulo, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 05508-000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paulo Victor","family":"dos Santos Tavares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuclear and Energy Research Institute (IPEN-CNEN) , , , ,","place":["Sa\u0303o Paulo, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 05508-000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0029-7313","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Emerson Soares","family":"Bernardes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuclear and Energy Research Institute (IPEN-CNEN) , , , ,","place":["Sa\u0303o Paulo, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 05508-000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Orlando","family":"Rodrigues Junior","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuclear and Energy Research Institute (IPEN-CNEN) , , , ,","place":["Sa\u0303o Paulo, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 05508-000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pedro","family":"Zambianchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Federal University of Technology - Parana\u0301 , , ,","place":["Curitiba, Parana, Brazil, 80230-910"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Elisa C. M.","family":"Rostelato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuclear and Energy Research Institute (IPEN-CNEN) , , , ,","place":["Sa\u0303o Paulo, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 05508-000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4203-1134","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Martha Simo\u0303es","family":"Ribeiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuclear and Energy Research Institute (IPEN-CNEN) , , , ,","place":["Sa\u0303o Paulo, Sa\u0303o Paulo, Brazil, 05508-000"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"316","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026081110192987500_cit1","unstructured":"World Health Organization.\n          \n          Cancer; 2025. https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/cancer."},{"key":"2026081110192987500_cit2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2020.106535","article-title":"Breast cancer: biology,\nbiomarkers, and treatments","volume":"84","author":"Barzaman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081110192987500_cit3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-024-02108-4","article-title":"Breast\ncancer: pathogenesis and treatments","volume":"10","author":"Xiong","year":"2025","journal-title":"Signal\nTransduction Targeted Ther."},{"key":"2026081110192987500_cit4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.critrevonc.2024.104351","article-title":"Recent\nstrategies to overcome breast cancer resistance","volume":"197","author":"Khan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081110192987500_cit5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1186\/s13058-020-01296-5","article-title":"Triple-negative\nbreast cancer molecular subtyping and treatment progress","volume":"22","author":"Yin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026081110192987500_cit6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.25122\/jml-2021-0108","article-title":"Triple-negative breast\ncancer: current treatment strategies and factors of negative prognosis","volume":"15","author":"Baranova","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Med. 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Nanomed."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081110192987500_cit11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.7150\/ntno.91507","article-title":"Radioactive\ngold nanoparticles coated with BSA: A promising approach for prostate\ncancer treatment","volume":"8","author":"Barbezan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nanotheranostics"},{"key":"2026081110192987500_cit12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"766407","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2021.766407","article-title":"Recent advances in brachytherapy using radioactive\nnanoparticles: an alternative to seed-based brachytherapy","volume":"11","author":"Seniwal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Oncol."},{"key":"2026081110192987500_cit13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotobiol.2021.112349","article-title":"Tumor radiosensitization\nby photobiomodulation","volume":"225","author":"de Faria","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Photochem. 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Res."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026081110192987500_cit15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brachy.2025.02.006","article-title":"The use of Monte Carlo simulation techniques\nin brachytherapy: A comprehensive literature review","volume":"24","author":"Adhikari","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brachytherapy"},{"key":"2026081110192987500_cit16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmp.2020.03.019","article-title":"The TOPAS tool for particle simulation, a Monte Carlo\nsimulation tool for physics, biology and clinical research","volume":"72","author":"Faddegon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. 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Photobiol."},{"issue":"12","key":"2026081110192987500_cit19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1670","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16121670","article-title":"Radiosynthesis of stable 198Au-nanoparticles\nby neutron activation of \u03b1v\u03b23-specific AuNPs for therapy\nof tumor angiogenesis","volume":"16","author":"Davarci","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pharmaceuticals"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026081110192987500_cit20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.2967\/jnmt.117.206367","article-title":"Direct\nsynthesis of radioactive gold\nnanoparticles using a research nuclear reactor","volume":"46","author":"Toro","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med. Technol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081110192987500_cit21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1002\/wnan.161","article-title":"Functionalized radioactive gold nanoparticles in tumor\ntherapy","volume":"4","author":"Kannan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev.: Nanomed. Nanobiotechnol."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026081110192987500_cit22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.3390\/nano12020187","article-title":"Synthesis, in vitro testing, and biodistribution of surfactant-free\nradioactive nanoparticles for cancer treatment","volume":"12","author":"de Souza","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nanomaterials"},{"issue":"28","key":"2026081110192987500_cit23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30207","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.5c01385","article-title":"Evaluation\nof 198Au Nanoparticles Coated with Gum Arabic for Prostate\nCancer: A Contextual Comparison with BSA-Coated","volume":"10","author":"Barbezan","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"2026081110192987500_cit24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"112215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotobiol.2021.112215","article-title":"Photobiomodulation\ntherapy combined with radiotherapy in the treatment of triple-negative\nbreast cancer-bearing mice","volume":"220","author":"Silva","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol.,\nB"},{"key":"2026081110192987500_cit25","unstructured":"Pinto, M. S.\n          \n          Nanobrachytherapy\nassociated with photobiomodulation in a mouse model of induced breast\ntumor; Doctoral thesis, IPEN\/USP: Sa\u0303o Paulo; 2024."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026081110192987500_cit26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1006\/meth.2001.1262","article-title":"Analysis\nof relative gene expression data using real-time\nquantitative PCR and the 2\u2212\u0394\u0394CT method","volume":"25","author":"Livak","year":"2001","journal-title":"Methods"},{"key":"2026081110192987500_cit27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/9827147","article-title":"Galectin-3\nregulates the expression of tumor glycosaminoglycans and increases\nthe metastatic potential of breast cancer","volume":"2019","author":"Pereira","year":"2019","journal-title":"J.\nOncol."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026081110192987500_cit28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rpor.2019.02.006","article-title":"Estimation of tumor\nand local tissue dose in gold nanoparticles radiotherapy for prostate\ncancer","volume":"24","author":"Al-Yasiri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rep. Pract. Oncol. Radiother."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081110192987500_cit29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/1748-717X-6-5","article-title":"Doses to internal organs for various\nbreast radiation techniques--implications on the risk of secondary\ncancers and cardiomyopathyy","volume":"6","author":"Pignol","year":"2011","journal-title":"Radiat. Oncol."},{"issue":"2","key":"2026081110192987500_cit30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.2967\/jnumed.116.175695","article-title":"Monte Carlo N-Particle (MCNP) modeling\nof the cellular dosimetry of 64Cu: comparison with MIRDcell S values\nand implications for studies of its cytotoxic effects","volume":"58","author":"Cai","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"2026081110192987500_cit31","unstructured":"International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP).\n          \n          ICRP Publication 110 Adult reference computational\nphantoms; 2009. https:\/\/www.icrp.org\/publication.asp?id=ICRPPublication110."},{"key":"2026081110192987500_cit32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3167","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S452470","article-title":"Analysis of optimal treatment starting time for photothermal\ntherapy\nthrough analysis of diffusion behavior of gold nanoparticles","volume":"19","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"2026081110192987500_cit33","article-title":"Investigation of nanoparticle\ninjection to a tissue through porous media","volume-title":"Twelfth International Conference on Thermal Engineering: Theory and\nApplications (ICTEA)","author":"Soni","year":"2019"},{"key":"2026081110192987500_cit34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nds.2016.02.002","article-title":"Nuclear Data Sheets for Au = 198","volume":"133","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nuclear Data\nSheets"},{"key":"2026081110192987500_cit35","volume-title":"Standard practice for use of an alanine-EPR\ndosimetry system. ISO\/ASTM 51607\u201322","author":"ISO.","year":"2022"},{"issue":"11","key":"2026081110192987500_cit36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6818","DOI":"10.1118\/1.4758060","article-title":"TOPAS: an\ninnovative proton Monte Carlo platform for research and clinical applications","volume":"39","author":"Perl","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Phys."},{"issue":"3","key":"2026081110192987500_cit37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.4103\/aca.ACA_248_18","article-title":"Selection\nof appropriate statistical methods for data analysis","volume":"22","author":"Mishra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Card Anaesth."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081110192987500_cit38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/s10928-020-09673-5","article-title":"Disease progression model of 4T1 metastatic breast\ncancer","volume":"47","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pharmacokinet. Pharmacodyn."},{"issue":"42","key":"2026081110192987500_cit39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14561","DOI":"10.1039\/C7DT00383H","article-title":"Mangiferin functionalized\nradioactive gold nanoparticles (MGF-198AuNPs) in prostate tumor therapy:\ngreen nanotechnology for production, in vivo tumor retention and evaluation\nof therapeutic efficacy","volume":"46","author":"Al-Yasiri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dalton Trans."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026081110192987500_cit40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1097\/CCO.0000000000000452","article-title":"Photobiomodulation\nor low-level laser therapy in the management of cancer therapy-induced\nmucositis, dermatitis and lymphedema","volume":"30","author":"Bensadoun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr.\nOpin Oncol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081110192987500_cit41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexmp.2006.06.007","article-title":"Murine mammary\ncarcinoma 4T1 induces\na leukemoid reaction with splenomegaly: association with tumor-derived\ngrowth factors","volume":"82","author":"DuPre\u2019","year":"2007","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Pathol."},{"issue":"24","key":"2026081110192987500_cit42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4880","DOI":"10.1002\/cam4.4818","article-title":"Splenomegaly\nin predicting the survival of patients\nwith advanced primary liver cancer treated with immune checkpoint\ninhibitors","volume":"11","author":"Xiao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cancer Med."},{"issue":"20","key":"2026081110192987500_cit43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11061","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222011061","article-title":"The abscopal effect:\na review of pre-clinical and clinical advances","volume":"22","author":"Janopaul-Naylor","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"issue":"4","key":"2026081110192987500_cit44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijrobp.2012.06.020","article-title":"Radiotherapy to convert the tumor into an in situ vaccine","volume":"84","author":"Formenti","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081110192987500_cit45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/2162402X.2018.1523097","article-title":"Priming anti-tumor immunity\nby radiotherapy: Dying tumor cell-derived DAMPs trigger endothelial\ncell activation and recruitment of myeloid cells","volume":"8","author":"Krombach","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oncoimmunology"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081110192987500_cit46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-019-0653-7","article-title":"Radiation\ntherapy and anti-tumor immunity: exposing immunogenic mutations to\nthe immune system","volume":"11","author":"Lhuillier","year":"2019","journal-title":"Genome. Med."},{"issue":"10","key":"2026081110192987500_cit47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3825","DOI":"10.31557\/APJCP.2025.26.10.3825","article-title":"Radiotherapy\nimproves antitumor immunity by inducing immunogenic cell death in\nbreast cancer patients","volume":"26","author":"Abdelrhman","year":"2025","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Cancer\nPrev."},{"key":"2026081110192987500_cit48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2020.01195","article-title":"Multi-omics characterization of the 4T1 murine mammary\ngland tumor model","volume":"10","author":"Schro\u0308rs","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Oncol."},{"issue":"1","key":"2026081110192987500_cit49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-020-06122-x","article-title":"The expression of galectin-3 in breast\ncancer and its association with metastatic disease: a systematic review\nof the literature","volume":"48","author":"Boutas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. 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